哈工大研究生讲课与考试的英文文章小结.docx

哈工大研究生讲课与考试的英文文章小结.docx

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哈工大研究生讲课与考试的英文文章小结

WillFrankenfoodFeedTheWorld?

1.Ifyouwanttosparkaheateddebateatadinnerparty,bringupthetopicofgeneticallymodifiedfoods.Formanypeople,theconceptofgeneticallyaltered,high-techcropproductionraisesallkindsofenvironmental,health,safetyandethicalquestions.Particularlyincountrieswithlongagrariantraditions—andvocalgreenlobbies—theideaseemsagainstnature.

2.Infact,geneticallymodifiedfoodsarealreadyverymuchapartofourlives.AthirdofthecornandmorethanhalfthesoybeansandcottongrownintheU.S.lastyearweretheproductofbiotechnology,accordingtotheDepartmentofAgriculture.Morethan65millionacresofgeneticallymodifiedcropswillbeplantedintheU.S.thisyear.Thegeneticgenieisoutofthebottle.

3.Yetthereareclearlysomeveryrealissuesthatneedtoberesolved.Likeanynewproductenteringthefoodchain,geneticallymodifiedfoodsmustbesubjectedtorigoroustesting.Inwealthycountries,thedebateaboutbiotechistemperedbythefactthatwehavearicharrayoffoodstochoosefrom—andasupplythatfarexceedsourneeds.Indevelopingcountriesdesperatetofeedfast-growingandunderfedpopulations,theissueissimplerandmuchmoreurgent:

Dothebenefitsofbiotechoutweightherisks?

4.Thestatisticsonpopulationgrowthandhungeraredisturbing.Lastyeartheworld'spopulationreached6billion.Andby2050,theU.N.estimates,itwillprobablynear9billion.Almostallthatgrowthwilloccurindevelopingcountries.Atthesametime,theworld'savailablecultivablelandperpersonisdeclining.Arablelandhasdeclinedsteadilysince1960andwilldecreasebyhalfoverthenext50years,accordingtotheInternationalServicefortheAcquisitionofAgri-BiotechApplications（ISAAA）.

5.TheU.N.estimatesthatnearly800millionpeoplearoundtheworldareundernourished.Theeffectsaredevastating.About400millionwomenofchildbearingageareirondeficient,whichmeanstheirbabiesareexposedtovariousbirthdefects.Asmanyas100millionchildrensufferfromvitaminAdeficiency,aleadingcauseofblindness.Tensofmillionsofpeoplesufferfromothermajorailmentsandnutritionaldeficienciescausedbylackoffood.

6.Howcanbiotechhelp?

Biotechnologistshavedevelopedgeneticallymodifiedricethatisfortifiedwithbeta-carotene--whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA--andadditionaliron,andtheyareworkingonotherkindsofnutritionallyimprovedcrops.Biotechcanalsoimprovefarmingproductivityinplaceswherefoodshortagesarecausedbycropdamageattributabletopests,drought,poorsoilandcropviruses,bacteriaorfungi.

7.Damagecausedbypestsisincredible.TheEuropeancornborer,forexample,destroys40milliontonsoftheworld'scorncropannually,about7%ofthetotal.Incorporatingpest-resistantgenesintoseedscanhelprestorethebalance.Intrialsofpest-resistantcottoninAfrica,yieldshaveincreasedsignificantly.Sofar,fearsthatgeneticallymodified,pest-resistantcropsmightkillgoodinsectsaswellasbadappearunfounded.

8.Virusesoftencausemassivefailureinstaplecropsindevelopingcountries.Twoyearsago,Africalostmorethanhalfitscassavacrop--akeysourceofcalories--tothemosaicvirus.Geneticallymodified,virus-resistantcropscanreducethatdamage,ascandrought-tolerantseedsinregionswherewatershortageslimittheamountoflandundercultivation.Biotechcanalsohelpsolvetheproblemofsoilthatcontainsexcessaluminum,whichcandamagerootsandcausemanystaple-cropfailures.Agenethathelpsneutralizealuminumtoxicityinricehasbeenidentified.

9.Manyscientistsbelievebiotechcouldraiseoverallcropproductivityindevelopingcountriesasmuchas25%andhelppreventthelossofthosecropsaftertheyareharvested.

10.Yetforallthatpromise,biotechisfarfrombeingthewholeanswer.Indevelopingcountries,lostcropsareonlyonecauseofhunger.Povertyplaysthelargestrole.Todaymorethan1billionpeoplearoundtheglobeliveonlessthan$1aday.Makinggeneticallymodifiedcropsavailablewillnotreducehungeriffarmerscannotaffordtogrowthemorifthelocalpopulationcannotaffordtobuythefoodthosefarmersproduce.

11.Norcanbiotechovercomethechallengeofdistributingfoodindevelopingcountries.Takenasawhole,theworldproducesenoughfoodtofeedeveryone—butmuchofitissimplyinthewrongplace.Especiallyincountrieswithundevelopedtransportinfrastructures,geographyrestrictsfoodavailabilityasdramaticallyasgeneticspromisestoimproveit.

12.Biotechhasitsown"distribution"problems.Private-sectorbiotechcompaniesintherichcountriescarryoutmuchoftheleading-edgeresearchongeneticallymodifiedcrops.Theirproductsareoftentoocostlyforpoorfarmersinthedevelopingworld,andmanyofthoseproductswon'tevenreachtheregionswheretheyaremostneeded.Biotechfirmshaveastrongfinancialincentivetotargetrichmarketsfirstinordertohelpthemrapidlyrecoupthehighcostsofproductdevelopment.Butsomeofthesecompaniesarerespondingtotheneedsofpoorcountries.ALondon-basedcompany,forexample,hasannouncedthatitwillsharewithdevelopingcountriestechnologyneededtoproducevitamin-enriched"goldenrice."

Callforaclimatecultureshift

1、Inthefightagainstclimatechange,humanswillneedtodomorethanswitchtoenergy-efficientlightbulbsandbuy`green'goods.AsenvironmentalscientistDavidOrrpointsoutinDowntotheWire,whatisneededisaradicalshiftinculturethataltersourpriorities.Thequestioniswhetherthattask,whichseemsimpossible,canbemadetohappen.Orr'sbook,alongwithrecentresearchandsocialinitiatives,givehopethatitcan.

2、Thereisagrowingscientificconsensusthathumanityisrapidlyapproachingaglobalclimatecatastrophe.Althoughwehaveincreasingknowledgeofthedangersandcostsaheadthereislittletimetoavertadisaster.Orracknowledgesthesedirecircumstances,butdoesnotwallowindespairordefeatism.Hisbookisaclear-sightedviewofwhatweneedtochangenow.

3、Hedescribesthreeessentialcategoriesofradicalchange,inincreasingorderofdifficulty.Thefirstandmosteasilyachievableisaredesignoftheinfrastructureforproducingfood,energy,waterandothercommoditiessothatitispoweredbyrenewablesources.Secondisanoverhaulofeducationsystemstodevelopecologicalliteracyandencouragecreative,real-worldproblemsolving.Thethirdistoreformourpoliticalsystemsfromthecurrentcorporateplutocraciestotruedemocracierwithrealleaders.

4、Welive,asOrrsays,"amidtheruinsoffailed‘-isms"'.Bothcommunismandcapitalismhavepursuedpoliciesof`growthatallcosts'thathasfailedtoaccountadequatelyforthevalueofnaturalandsocialcapitalassets,suchasastableclimate,functioningecosystermsandsuccessfulhumancommunities.Analternativesolutionisneededtoformulateafundamentallydifferentsetofeconomicgoalsforsociety.Orrprescribesthreesuchgoals"thatpresentlyappeartobeutterlyimpossible':

First,headvocatesachangeinpriority:

insteadofeconomicgrowth,weshouldswitchtodevelopmentthatgenuinelyimprovesthequalityoflifeforeveryone.Second,consumercultureshouldbefocusedonneeds,notwants;andthird-hardestofall-weshouldsummon"thecompassionandwisdomtofairlydistributewealth,opportunityandrisk.”

5、Thesegoalsandthepoliciestoachievethemhavelongbeenonsocialandpoliticalagendas.Whyhavethingsnotchanged,andhowcantheybemadetochange?

Orraddressesthisadroitly,showingthathumannatureisflexibleandthatrapidculturalshiftshavehappenedbefore.IntheUnitedStatesaftertheSecondWorldWar,forexample,theculturechangedtoallownewsocialandtaxationpoliciesthatcreatedthemiddleclass.TherapidfalloftheSovietUnionresultedfromtheslowbuild一upofsocialproblemsuntilatippingpointwasreached.Itmayonlybeamatteroftimebeforepeoplewhosharethegoalsofqualityoflife,fairnessandsufficiencybegintooutweighthosewhoseworldviewislockedintogrowthatallcosts.

6、SomeevidencethatsuchattitudesareontherisecomesfromtheworkofsociologistPaulH.RayandpsychologistSherryRuthAnderson,whohavesurveyedandcategorizedworldviewsintheUnitedStatesoverthepastfourdecades.TntheirbookTheCulturalCreatives（CrownPublishing;2000）,theybreaktheUSpopulationintothreegroups:

`traditionals;whoincludethereligiousrightandotherswhoharkbacktothepast;`moderns;whoarethecurrentdominantgroupandincludethe`growthatallcosts'type;and`culturalcreatives;includingthosewiththevaluesandgoalsthatOrrpromotes.ThepercentageofculturalcreativesintheUnitedStatesincreasedfromalmostnothinginthe1960sto25%饰theyear2000,andisnowcloseto30%bysomeestimates.Apoliticaltippingpointwilloccurwhenthispercentageislargeenoughtobegintoradicallychangethepoliticaldynamicsofthecountryand,byextension,theworld.

7、AsOrrpointsout,manyvariedinitiativesarealreadypressingtowardsaculturalshift.Examplesincludethe`transitiontown'movement,spearheadedbythecharityTransitionNetworkinTomes,UK,whichaimstohelpcommunitiesreducetheircarbonemissions;the`sustainablecities'effortbasedinVancouver,Canada,whichsupportsurbansustainabilityprojectsworldwide;andOrr'sowninitiativetoplanandconstructsustainablebuildingsinthecityofOberlin,Ohio.

8、Otherindicatorsofthisshiftincludethethousandsoforganizationsthataredevotedtorestoringtheenvironmentandfosteringsocialjustice,asdesc