unemployment失业经济学作业全英.docx

unemployment失业经济学作业全英.docx

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unemployment失业经济学作业全英

Unemployment

会展0901彭则轶

Directory

1.Definition

2.Thecalculationoftheunemploymentrate

3.Definitions,typesandtheories

3.1Classicalunemployment

3.2CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment

3.3Structuralunemployment

3.4Frictionalunemployment

3.5Hiddenunemployment

3.6Long-termunemployment

4.Controllingorreducingunemployment

4.1Demandsidesolutions

4.2Supply-sidesolutions

5.UnemploymentofChinesegraduates

1.Definitions

Unemployment,asdefinedbytheInternationalLabourOrganization,occurswhenpeoplearewithoutjobsandtheyhaveactivelylookedforworkwithinthepastfourweeks.Theunemploymentrateisameasureoftheprevalenceofunemploymentanditiscalculatedasapercentagebydividingthenumberofunemployedindividualsbyallindividualscurrentlyinthelabourforce.

2.Thecalculationoftheunemploymentrate

Theunemploymentrateiscalculatedas:

theunemploymentrate（%）=（unemployed÷laborforce）×100%

3.Definitions,typesandtheories

Economistsdistinguishbetweenvariousoverlappingtypesofandtheoriesofunemployment,includingcyclicalorKeynesianunemployment,frictionalunemployment,structuralunemploymentandclassicalunemployment.Someadditionaltypesofunemploymentthatareoccasionallymentionedareseasonalunemployment,hardcoreunemployment,andhiddenunemployment.TheU.S.BLSmeasuressixtypesofunemployment,U1-U6.

Thoughtherehavebeenseveraldefinitionsofvoluntaryandinvoluntaryunemploymentintheeconomicsliterature,asimpledistinctionisoftenapplied.Voluntaryunemploymentisattributedtotheindividual'sdecisions,whereasinvoluntaryunemploymentexistsbecauseofthesocio-economicenvironment（includingthemarketstructure,governmentintervention,andthelevelofaggregatedemand）inwhichindividualsoperate.Intheseterms,muchormostoffrictionalunemploymentisvoluntary,sinceitreflectsindividualsearchbehavior.Voluntaryunemploymentincludesworkerswhorejectlowwagejobswhereasinvoluntaryunemploymentincludesworkersfiredduetoaneconomiccrisis,industrialdecline,companybankruptcy,ororganizationalrestructuring.

Ontheotherhand,cyclicalunemployment,structuralunemployment,andclassicalunemploymentarelargelyinvoluntaryinnature.However,theexistenceofstructuralunemploymentmayreflectchoicesmadebytheunemployedinthepast,whileclassical（natural）unemploymentmayresultfromthelegislativeandeconomicchoicesmadebylabourunionsorpoliticalparties.So,inpractice,thedistinctionbetweenvoluntaryandinvoluntaryunemploymentishardtodraw.Theclearestcasesofinvoluntaryunemploymentarethosewheretherearefewerjobvacanciesthanunemployedworkersevenwhenwagesareallowedtoadjust,sothatevenifallvacanciesweretobefilled,someunemployedworkerswouldstillremain.Thishappenswithcyclicalunemployment,asmacroeconomicforcescausemicroeconomicunemploymentwhichcanboomerangbackandexacerbatethesemacroeconomicforces.

3.1Classicalunemployment

Classicalorreal-wageunemploymentoccurswhenrealwagesforajobaresetabovethemarket-clearinglevel,causingthenumberofjob-seekerstoexceedthenumberofvacancies.

Mosteconomistshavearguedthatunemploymentincreasesthemorethegovernmentintervenesintotheeconomytotrytoimprovetheconditionsofthosewithjobs.Forexample,minimumwagelawsraisethecostoflaborerswithfewskillstoabovethemarketequilibrium,resultinginpeoplewhowishtoworkatthegoingratebutcannotaswageenforcedisgreaterthantheirvalueasworkersbecomingunemployed.Lawsrestrictinglayoffsmadebusinesseslesslikelytohireinthefirstplace,ashiringbecomesmorerisky,leavingmanyyoungpeopleunemployedandunabletofindwork.

However,thisargumentiscriticizedforignoringnumerousexternalfactorsandoverlysimplifyingtherelationshipbetweenwageratesandunemployment-inotherwords,thatotherfactorsmayalsoaffectunemployment.Some,suchasMurrayRothbard,suggestthatevensocialtabooscanpreventwagesfromfallingtothemarketclearinglevel.

3.2CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment

CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment,alsoknownasdeficient-demandunemployment,occurswhenthereisnotenoughaggregatedemandintheeconomytoprovidejobsforeveryonewhowantstowork.Demandformostgoodsandservicesfalls,lessproductionisneededandconsequentlyfewerworkersareneeded,wagesarestickyanddonotfalltomeettheequilibriumlevel,andmassunemploymentresults.ItsnameisderivedfromthefrequentshiftsinthebusinesscyclealthoughunemploymentcanalsobepersistentasoccurredduringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930s.Withcyclicalunemployment,thenumberofunemployedworkersexceedsthenumberofjobvacancies,sothateveniffullemploymentwereattainedandallopenjobswerefilled,someworkerswouldstillremainunemployed.Someassociatecyclicalunemploymentwithfrictionalunemploymentbecausethefactorsthatcausethefrictionarepartiallyduetocyclicalvariables.Forexample,asurprisedecreaseinthemoneysupplymayshockrationaleconomicactorsandsuddenlyinhibitaggregatedemand.

Classicaleconomistsrejecttheconceptionofcyclicalunemploymentandalternativelysuggestthattheinvisiblehandoffreemarketswillrespondquicklytounemploymentandunderutilizationofresourcesbyafallinwagesfollowedbyariseinemployment.Similarly,HayekandothersfromtheAustrianschoolofeconomicsarguethatifgovernmentsintervenethroughmonetarypolicytolowerinterestsratesthiswillexacerbateunemploymentbypreventingthemarketfromrespondingeffectively.

Keynesianeconomistsontheotherhandseethelackofdemandforjobsaspotentiallyresolvablebygovernmentintervention.Onesuggestedinterventionsinvolvesdeficitspendingtoboostemploymentanddemand.Anotherinterventioninvolvesanexpansionarymonetarypolicythatincreasesthedemandofmoneywhichshouldreduceinterestrateswhichshouldleadtoanincreaseinnon-governmentalspending.

3.3Structuralunemployment

Structuralunemployment

Okun'sLawinterpretsunemploymentasafunctionofgrowthinGNP

"Driverlookingforwork"UnemployedGermanlaborerin1949Structuralunemploymentoccurswhenalabourmarketisunabletoprovidejobsforeveryonewhowantsonebecausethereisamismatchbetweentheskillsoftheunemployedworkersandtheskillsneededfortheavailablejobs.

Structuralunemploymentishardtoseparateempiricallyfromfrictionalunemployment,excepttosaythatitlastslonger.Aswithfrictionalunemployment,simpledemand-sidestimuluswillnotworktoeasilyabolishthistypeofunemployment.

Structuralunemploymentmayalsobeencouragedtorisebypersistentcyclicalunemployment:

ifaneconomysuffersfromlong-lastinglowaggregatedemand,itmeansthatmanyoftheunemployedbecomedisheartened,whiletheirskills（includingjob-searchingskills）become"rusty"andobsolete.Problemswithdebtmayleadtohomelessnessandafallintotheviciouscircleofpoverty.Thismeansthattheymaynotfitthejobvacanciesthatarecreatedwhentheeconomyrecovers.SomeeconomistsseethisscenarioasoccurringunderBritishPrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherduringthe1970sand1980s.Theimplicationisthatsustainedhighdemandmaylowerstructuralunemployment.Thistheoryofpersistenceinstructuralunemploymenthasbeenreferredtoasanexampleofpathdependenceor"hysteresis".

Muchtechnologicalunemployment（e.g.duetothereplacementofworkersbymachines）mightbecountedasstructuralunemployment.Alternatively,technologicalunemploymentmightrefertothewayinwhichsteadyincreasesinlabourproductivitymeanthatfewerworkersareneededtoproducethesamelevelofoutputeveryyear.Thefactthataggregatedemandcanberaisedtodealwiththisproblemsuggeststhatthisproblemisinsteadoneofcyclicalunemployment.AsindicatedbyOkun'sLaw,thedemandsidemustgrowsufficientlyquicklytoabsorbnotonlythegrowinglabourforcebutalsotheworkersmaderedundantbyincreasedlabourproductivity.Otherwise,weseeajoblessrecoverysuchasthoseseenintheUnitedStatesinboththeearly1990sandtheearly21stcentury.

Seasonalunemploymentmaybeseenasakindofstructuralunemployment,sinceitisatypeofunemploymentthatislinkedtocertainkindsofjobs（constructionwork,migratoryfarmwork）.Themost-citedofficialunemploymentmeasureserasethiskindofunemploymentfromthestatisticsusing"seasonaladjustment"techniques.

3.4Frictionalunemployment

Frictionalunemploymentisthetimeperiodbetweenjobswhenaworkerissearchingfor,ortransitioningfromonejobtoanother.Itissometimescalledsearchunemploymentandcanbevoluntarybasedonthecircumstancesoftheunemployedindividual.Frictionalunemploymentisalwayspresentinaneconomy,sothelevelofinvoluntaryunemploymentisproperlytheunemploymentrateminustherateoffrictionalunemployment,whichmeansthatincreasesordecreasesinunemploymentarenormallyunder-representedinthesimplestatistics.

Frictionalunemploymentexistsbecausebothjobsandworkersareheterogeneous,andamismatchcanresultbetweenthecharacteristicsofsupplyanddemand.Suchamismatchcanberelatedtoskills,payment,work-time,location,seasonalindustries,attitude,taste,andamultitudeofotherfactors.Newentrants（suchasgraduatingstudents）andre-entrants（suchasformerhomemakers）canalsosufferaspelloffrictionalunemployment.Workersaswellasemployersacceptacertainlevelofimperfection,riskorcompromise,butusuallynotrightaway;theywillinvestsometimeandefforttofindabetterm