unemployment失业经济学作业全英.docx
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unemployment失业经济学作业全英
Unemployment
会展0901彭则轶
Directory
1.Definition
2.Thecalculationoftheunemploymentrate
3.Definitions,typesandtheories
3.1Classicalunemployment
3.2CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment
3.3Structuralunemployment
3.4Frictionalunemployment
3.5Hiddenunemployment
3.6Long-termunemployment
4.Controllingorreducingunemployment
4.1Demandsidesolutions
4.2Supply-sidesolutions
5.UnemploymentofChinesegraduates
1.Definitions
Unemployment,asdefinedbytheInternationalLabourOrganization,occurswhenpeoplearewithoutjobsandtheyhaveactivelylookedforworkwithinthepastfourweeks.Theunemploymentrateisameasureoftheprevalenceofunemploymentanditiscalculatedasapercentagebydividingthenumberofunemployedindividualsbyallindividualscurrentlyinthelabourforce.
2.Thecalculationoftheunemploymentrate
Theunemploymentrateiscalculatedas:
theunemploymentrate(%)=(unemployed÷laborforce)×100%
3.Definitions,typesandtheories
Economistsdistinguishbetweenvariousoverlappingtypesofandtheoriesofunemployment,includingcyclicalorKeynesianunemployment,frictionalunemployment,structuralunemploymentandclassicalunemployment.Someadditionaltypesofunemploymentthatareoccasionallymentionedareseasonalunemployment,hardcoreunemployment,andhiddenunemployment.TheU.S.BLSmeasuressixtypesofunemployment,U1-U6.
Thoughtherehavebeenseveraldefinitionsofvoluntaryandinvoluntaryunemploymentintheeconomicsliterature,asimpledistinctionisoftenapplied.Voluntaryunemploymentisattributedtotheindividual'sdecisions,whereasinvoluntaryunemploymentexistsbecauseofthesocio-economicenvironment(includingthemarketstructure,governmentintervention,andthelevelofaggregatedemand)inwhichindividualsoperate.Intheseterms,muchormostoffrictionalunemploymentisvoluntary,sinceitreflectsindividualsearchbehavior.Voluntaryunemploymentincludesworkerswhorejectlowwagejobswhereasinvoluntaryunemploymentincludesworkersfiredduetoaneconomiccrisis,industrialdecline,companybankruptcy,ororganizationalrestructuring.
Ontheotherhand,cyclicalunemployment,structuralunemployment,andclassicalunemploymentarelargelyinvoluntaryinnature.However,theexistenceofstructuralunemploymentmayreflectchoicesmadebytheunemployedinthepast,whileclassical(natural)unemploymentmayresultfromthelegislativeandeconomicchoicesmadebylabourunionsorpoliticalparties.So,inpractice,thedistinctionbetweenvoluntaryandinvoluntaryunemploymentishardtodraw.Theclearestcasesofinvoluntaryunemploymentarethosewheretherearefewerjobvacanciesthanunemployedworkersevenwhenwagesareallowedtoadjust,sothatevenifallvacanciesweretobefilled,someunemployedworkerswouldstillremain.Thishappenswithcyclicalunemployment,asmacroeconomicforcescausemicroeconomicunemploymentwhichcanboomerangbackandexacerbatethesemacroeconomicforces.
3.1Classicalunemployment
Classicalorreal-wageunemploymentoccurswhenrealwagesforajobaresetabovethemarket-clearinglevel,causingthenumberofjob-seekerstoexceedthenumberofvacancies.
Mosteconomistshavearguedthatunemploymentincreasesthemorethegovernmentintervenesintotheeconomytotrytoimprovetheconditionsofthosewithjobs.Forexample,minimumwagelawsraisethecostoflaborerswithfewskillstoabovethemarketequilibrium,resultinginpeoplewhowishtoworkatthegoingratebutcannotaswageenforcedisgreaterthantheirvalueasworkersbecomingunemployed.Lawsrestrictinglayoffsmadebusinesseslesslikelytohireinthefirstplace,ashiringbecomesmorerisky,leavingmanyyoungpeopleunemployedandunabletofindwork.
However,thisargumentiscriticizedforignoringnumerousexternalfactorsandoverlysimplifyingtherelationshipbetweenwageratesandunemployment-inotherwords,thatotherfactorsmayalsoaffectunemployment.Some,suchasMurrayRothbard,suggestthatevensocialtabooscanpreventwagesfromfallingtothemarketclearinglevel.
3.2CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment
CyclicalorKeynesianunemployment,alsoknownasdeficient-demandunemployment,occurswhenthereisnotenoughaggregatedemandintheeconomytoprovidejobsforeveryonewhowantstowork.Demandformostgoodsandservicesfalls,lessproductionisneededandconsequentlyfewerworkersareneeded,wagesarestickyanddonotfalltomeettheequilibriumlevel,andmassunemploymentresults.ItsnameisderivedfromthefrequentshiftsinthebusinesscyclealthoughunemploymentcanalsobepersistentasoccurredduringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930s.Withcyclicalunemployment,thenumberofunemployedworkersexceedsthenumberofjobvacancies,sothateveniffullemploymentwereattainedandallopenjobswerefilled,someworkerswouldstillremainunemployed.Someassociatecyclicalunemploymentwithfrictionalunemploymentbecausethefactorsthatcausethefrictionarepartiallyduetocyclicalvariables.Forexample,asurprisedecreaseinthemoneysupplymayshockrationaleconomicactorsandsuddenlyinhibitaggregatedemand.
Classicaleconomistsrejecttheconceptionofcyclicalunemploymentandalternativelysuggestthattheinvisiblehandoffreemarketswillrespondquicklytounemploymentandunderutilizationofresourcesbyafallinwagesfollowedbyariseinemployment.Similarly,HayekandothersfromtheAustrianschoolofeconomicsarguethatifgovernmentsintervenethroughmonetarypolicytolowerinterestsratesthiswillexacerbateunemploymentbypreventingthemarketfromrespondingeffectively.
Keynesianeconomistsontheotherhandseethelackofdemandforjobsaspotentiallyresolvablebygovernmentintervention.Onesuggestedinterventionsinvolvesdeficitspendingtoboostemploymentanddemand.Anotherinterventioninvolvesanexpansionarymonetarypolicythatincreasesthedemandofmoneywhichshouldreduceinterestrateswhichshouldleadtoanincreaseinnon-governmentalspending.
3.3Structuralunemployment
Structuralunemployment
Okun'sLawinterpretsunemploymentasafunctionofgrowthinGNP
"Driverlookingforwork"UnemployedGermanlaborerin1949Structuralunemploymentoccurswhenalabourmarketisunabletoprovidejobsforeveryonewhowantsonebecausethereisamismatchbetweentheskillsoftheunemployedworkersandtheskillsneededfortheavailablejobs.
Structuralunemploymentishardtoseparateempiricallyfromfrictionalunemployment,excepttosaythatitlastslonger.Aswithfrictionalunemployment,simpledemand-sidestimuluswillnotworktoeasilyabolishthistypeofunemployment.
Structuralunemploymentmayalsobeencouragedtorisebypersistentcyclicalunemployment:
ifaneconomysuffersfromlong-lastinglowaggregatedemand,itmeansthatmanyoftheunemployedbecomedisheartened,whiletheirskills(includingjob-searchingskills)become"rusty"andobsolete.Problemswithdebtmayleadtohomelessnessandafallintotheviciouscircleofpoverty.Thismeansthattheymaynotfitthejobvacanciesthatarecreatedwhentheeconomyrecovers.SomeeconomistsseethisscenarioasoccurringunderBritishPrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherduringthe1970sand1980s.Theimplicationisthatsustainedhighdemandmaylowerstructuralunemployment.Thistheoryofpersistenceinstructuralunemploymenthasbeenreferredtoasanexampleofpathdependenceor"hysteresis".
Muchtechnologicalunemployment(e.g.duetothereplacementofworkersbymachines)mightbecountedasstructuralunemployment.Alternatively,technologicalunemploymentmightrefertothewayinwhichsteadyincreasesinlabourproductivitymeanthatfewerworkersareneededtoproducethesamelevelofoutputeveryyear.Thefactthataggregatedemandcanberaisedtodealwiththisproblemsuggeststhatthisproblemisinsteadoneofcyclicalunemployment.AsindicatedbyOkun'sLaw,thedemandsidemustgrowsufficientlyquicklytoabsorbnotonlythegrowinglabourforcebutalsotheworkersmaderedundantbyincreasedlabourproductivity.Otherwise,weseeajoblessrecoverysuchasthoseseenintheUnitedStatesinboththeearly1990sandtheearly21stcentury.
Seasonalunemploymentmaybeseenasakindofstructuralunemployment,sinceitisatypeofunemploymentthatislinkedtocertainkindsofjobs(constructionwork,migratoryfarmwork).Themost-citedofficialunemploymentmeasureserasethiskindofunemploymentfromthestatisticsusing"seasonaladjustment"techniques.
3.4Frictionalunemployment
Frictionalunemploymentisthetimeperiodbetweenjobswhenaworkerissearchingfor,ortransitioningfromonejobtoanother.Itissometimescalledsearchunemploymentandcanbevoluntarybasedonthecircumstancesoftheunemployedindividual.Frictionalunemploymentisalwayspresentinaneconomy,sothelevelofinvoluntaryunemploymentisproperlytheunemploymentrateminustherateoffrictionalunemployment,whichmeansthatincreasesordecreasesinunemploymentarenormallyunder-representedinthesimplestatistics.
Frictionalunemploymentexistsbecausebothjobsandworkersareheterogeneous,andamismatchcanresultbetweenthecharacteristicsofsupplyanddemand.Suchamismatchcanberelatedtoskills,payment,work-time,location,seasonalindustries,attitude,taste,andamultitudeofotherfactors.Newentrants(suchasgraduatingstudents)andre-entrants(suchasformerhomemakers)canalsosufferaspelloffrictionalunemployment.Workersaswellasemployersacceptacertainlevelofimperfection,riskorcompromise,butusuallynotrightaway;theywillinvestsometimeandefforttofindabetterm