经济学原理重要概念.docx

经济学原理重要概念.docx

《经济学原理重要概念.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《经济学原理重要概念.docx（16页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

经济学原理重要概念

Principlesofeconomics

Chapter1TenPrincipalsofEconomics

Howpeoplemakedecisions

Principle1:

peoplefacetradeoffs

Principle2:

thecostofsomethingiswhatyougiveuptogetit

Principle3:

rationalpeoplethinkatthemargin

Principle4:

peoplerespondtoincentives

Howpeopleinteract

Principle5:

tradecanmakeeveryonebetteroff

Principle6:

marketsareusuallyagoodwaytoorganizeeconomicactivity

Principle7:

governmentscansometimeimprovemarketoutcomes

Howtheeconomyasawholeworks

Principle8:

acountry’sstandardoflivingdependsonitsabilitytoproducegoodsandservices

Principle9:

pricesrisewhenthegovernmentprintstoomuchmoney

Principle10:

societyfacesashort-termtradeoffbetweeninflationandunemployment

1.Scarcity:

societyhaslimitedresourcesandthereforecannotproduceallthegoodsandservicespeoplewishtohave

2.Economics:

thestudyofhowsocietymanagesitsscarceresources

3.Classictradeoffs:

gunsandbutter,efficiencyandequity

4.Efficiency:

thepropertyofthesocietygettingthemostitcanfromitsscarceresources

5.Equity:

thepropertyofdistributingeconomicprosperityfairlyamongthemembersofsociety

6.Opportunitycost:

whatevermustbegiventoobtainsomeitem

7.Marginalchanges:

smallincrementaladjustmentstoanexistingplanofaction

8.Whenanalyzinganypolicy,wemustconsidernotonlythedirecteffectsbutalsotheindirecteffectsthatworkthroughincentives

9.Centralplanning:

thecentralplannersinthegovernmentwereinthebestpositiontoguideeconomicactivity

10.Marketeconomy:

aneconomythatallocatesresourcesthroughthedecentralizeddecisionsofmanyfirmsandhouseholdsastheinteractinmarketsforgoodsandservices

11.Whenthegovernmentpreventspricesfromadjustingnormallytosupplyanddemand,itimpedestheinvisiblehand’sabilitytocoordinatethemillionsoffirmsandhouseholdsthatmakeuptheeconomy;buttheinvisiblehandneedsgovernmenttoprotectit.Thegovernmentcanalsopromoteefficiencyandequity.

12.Marketfailure:

asituationinwhichthemarketonitsownfailstoproduceanefficientallocationofresources

13.Externality:

theimpactofoneperson’sactionsonthewell-beingofabystander,whichmaycausemarketfailure

14.Marketpower:

theabilityofasingleeconomicactororsmallgroupofactorstohaveasubstantialinfluenceonmarketprices

15.Productivity:

thequantityofgoodsandservicesproducedfromeachhourofaworker’stime

16.Similarly,thegrowthrateofanation’sproductivitydeterminesthegrowthrateofitsaverageincome

17.Inflation:

anincreaseintheoveralllevelofpricesintheeconomy

18.Philipscurve:

acurvethatshowstheshort-runtradeoffbetweeninflationandunemployment

19.Businesscycle:

fluctuationineconomicactivity,suchasemploymentandproduction

Summary:

1.Thefundamentallessonsaboutindividualdecisionmakingarethatpeoplefacetradeoffsamongalternativegoals,thatthecostofanyactionismeasuredintermsofforgoneopportunities,thatrationalpeoplemakedecisionsbycomparingmarginalcostandmarginalbenefits,andthatpeoplechangetheirbehaviorinresponsetotheincentivestheyface.

2.Thefundamentallessonsaboutinteractionsamongpeoplearethattradecanbemutuallybeneficial,thatmarketsareusuallyagoodwayofcoordinatingtradeamongpeople,andthatthegovernmentcanpotentiallyimproveoutcomesifthereissomemarketfailureorifthemarketoutcomeisinequitable.

3.Thefundamentallessonsabouttheeconomyasawholearethatproductivityistheultimatesourceoflivingstandards,thatthemoneygrowthistheultimatesourceofinflation,andthesocietyfacesashort-runtradeoffbetweeninflationandunemployment.

Chapter2ThinkingLikeanEconomist

1.Circular-flowdiagram:

avisualmodeloftheeconomythatshowshowdollarsflowthroughmarketsamonghouseholdsandfirms

2.Theproductionpossibilitiesfrontier:

agraphthatshowsthecombinationofoutputthattheeconomycanpossiblyproducegiventheavailablefactorsofproductionandtheavailableproductiontechnology.Itshowstheopportunitycostofonegoodasmeasuredintermsoftheothergood.Itshowsthetradeoffbetweentheproductionofdifferentgoodsatagiventime,butthetradeoffcanchangeovertime

3.Microeconomics:

thestudyofhowhouseholdsandfirmsmakedecisionandhowtheinteractinmarkets

4.Macroeconomics:

thestudyofeconomy-widephenomena,includinginflation,unemployment,andeconomicgrowth

5.Positivestatements:

claimsthatattempttodescribetheworldasitis

6.Normativestatements:

claimsthatattempttoprescribehowtheworldshouldbe

7.Normativestatementscannotcomefrompositiveanalysisalone,theyinvolvevaluejudgmentsaswell

Summary:

1.Economiststrytoaddresstheirsubjectwithascientificobjectivity.Likeallscientists,theymakeappropriateassumptionsandbuildsimplifiedmodelsinordertounderstandtheworldaroundthem.Twosimpleeconomicmodelsarethecircular-flowdiagramandtheproductionpossibilitiesfrontier

2.Thefieldofeconomicsisdividedintotwosubfields:

microeconomicsandmacroeconomics.Macroeconomistsstudydecision-makingbyhouseholdsandfirmsandtheinteractionamonghouseholdsandfirmsinthemarketplace.Macroeconomistsstudytheforcesandtrendsthataffecttheeconomyasawhole.

3.Apositivestatementisanassertionabouthowtheworldis.Anormativestatementisanassertionabouthowtheworldoughttobe.Wheneconomistsmakenormativestatements,theyareactingmoreaspolicyadvisersthanscientists.

4.Economistswhoadvisepolicymakersofferconflictingadviceeitherbecauseofdifferencesinscientificjudgmentsorbecauseofdifferencesinvalues.Atothertimes,economistsareunitedintheadvicetheoffer,butpolicymakersmaychoosetoignoreit.

Chapter3InterdependenceandtheGainsfromTrade

1.Absoluteadvantage:

thecomparisonamongproducersofagoodaccordingtotheirproductivity

2.Comparativeadvantage:

thecomparisonamongproducersofagoodaccordingtotheiropportunitycost

3.Imports:

goodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically

4.Exports:

goodsproduceddomesticallyandsoldabroad

Summary

1.Eachpersonconsumesgoodsandservicesproducedbymanyotherpeoplebothinourcountryandaroundtheworld.Interdependenceandtradearedesirablebecausetheyalloweveryonetoenjoyagreaterquantityandvarietyofgoodsandservices.

2.Therearetwowaystocomparetheabilitiesoftwopeopleinproducingagood.Thepersonwhocanproducethegoodwiththesmallerquantityofinputsissaidtohaveanabsoluteadvantageinproducingthegood.Thepersonwhohasthesmalleropportunitycostofproducingthegoodissaidtohaveacomparativeadvantage,thegainsfromtradearebasedoncomparativeadvantage,notabsoluteadvantage.

3.Trademakeseveryonebetteroffbecauseitallowspeopletospecializeinthoseactivitiesinwhichtheyhaveacomparativeadvantage.

4.Theprincipleofcomparativeadvantageappliestocountriesaswellastopeople.Economistsusetheprincipleofcomparativeadvantagetoadvocatefreetradeamongcountries.

Chapter4TheMarketForcesofSupplyandDemand

1.Competitivemarket:

amarketinwhichtherearemanybuyersansellerssothateachhasanegligibleimpactonthemarketprice

2.Perfectcompetitivemarketsaredefinedbytwoprimarycharacteristics:

1thegoodsofferedforsaleareallthesameand2thebuyersandsellersaresonumerousthatnosinglebuyerorsellercaninfluencethemarketprice.Themarketdeterminestheprice;buyersandsellersarepricetakers.

3.Monopolisticallycompetitivemarket:

itcontainsmanysellersbuteachoffersaslightlydifferentproduct

4.Oligopoly:

ithasafewsellersthatdonotalwayscompeteaggressively

5.Monopoly:

themarkethasonlyonesellerandthesellersetstheprice

6.Quantitydemanded:

theamountofagoodthatbuyersarewillingandabletopurchase

7.Lawofdemand:

theclaimthat,otherthingsequal,thequantitydemandedofagoodfallswhenthepriceofthegoodrises

8.Lawofsupply:

theclaimthat,otherthingsequal,thequantitysuppliedofagoodriseswhenthepriceofthegoodrises

9.Lawofsupplyanddemand:

theclaimthatthepriceofanygoodadjuststobringthequantitysuppliedandthequantitydemandedofthegoodintobalance

10.Demandschedule:

atablethatshowstherelationshipbetweenthepriceofagoodandthequantitydemanded

11.Supplyschedule:

atablethatshowstherelationshipbetweenthepriceofagoodandthequantitysupplied

12.Demandcurve:

agraphoftherelationshipbetweenthepriceofagoodandthequantitydemanded

13.Supplycurve:

agraphoftherelationshipbetweenthepriceofagoodandthequantitysupplied

14.Marketdemand:

thesumofalltheindividualdemandsforaparticulargoodorservice

15.Variablesthatinfluencedemand:

income,priceofrelatedgoods,tastes,expectations,numberofbuyers

16.Variablesthatinfluencesupply:

inputprices,technology,expectation,numberofsellers

Expectation:

ifthesellerexpectsthepriceofagoodtoriseinthefuture,hewillputsomeofhiscurrentproductionintostorageandsupplylesstothemarkettoday

17.Normalgood:

agoodforwhich,otherthingsequal,anincreaseinincomeleadstoanincreaseindemand

18.Inferiorgood:

agoodforwhich,otherthingsequal,anincreaseinincomeleadstoandecreaseindemand

19.Substitutes:

twogoodsforwhichanincreaseinthepriceofoneleadstoanincreaseinthedemandfortheother

20.Complements:

twogoodsforwhichanincreaseinthepriceofoneleadstoadecreaseinthedemandfortheother

21.