经济学原理重要概念.docx

1、经济学原理重要概念Principles of economicsChapter1 Ten Principals of EconomicsHow people make decisionsPrinciple 1: people face tradeoffsPrinciple 2: the cost of something is what you give up to get itPrinciple 3: rational people think at the marginPrinciple 4: people respond to incentivesHow people interactP

2、rinciple 5: trade can make everyone better offPrinciple 6: markets are usually a good way to organize economic activityPrinciple 7: governments can sometime improve market outcomesHow the economy as a whole worksPrinciple 8: a countrys standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and s

3、ervicesPrinciple 9: prices rise when the government prints too much moneyPrinciple 10: society faces a short-term tradeoff between inflation and unemployment1. Scarcity: society has limited resources and therefore cannot produce all the goods and services people wish to have2. Economics: the study o

4、f how society manages its scarce resources3. Classic tradeoffs: guns and butter, efficiency and equity4. Efficiency: the property of the society getting the most it can from its scarce resources5. Equity: the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of society6. Opportun

5、ity cost: whatever must be given to obtain some item7. Marginal changes: small incremental adjustments to an existing plan of action8. When analyzing any policy, we must consider not only the direct effects but also the indirect effects that work through incentives9. Central planning: the central pl

6、anners in the government were in the best position to guide economic activity10. Market economy: an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as the interact in markets for goods and services11. When the government prevents prices from adjustin

7、g normally to supply and demand, it impedes the invisible hands ability to coordinate the millions of firms and households that make up the economy; but the invisible hand needs government to protect it. The government can also promote efficiency and equity.12. Market failure: a situation in which t

8、he market on its own fails to produce an efficient allocation of resources13. Externality: the impact of one persons actions on the well-being of a bystander, which may cause market failure14. Market power: the ability of a single economic actor or small group of actors to have a substantial influen

9、ce on market prices15. Productivity: the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a workers time16. Similarly, the growth rate of a nations productivity determines the growth rate of its average income17. Inflation: an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy18. Philip

10、s curve: a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment19. Business cycle: fluctuation in economic activity, such as employment and productionSummary:1. The fundamental lessons about individual decision making are that people face tradeoffs among alternative goals, that

11、 the cost of any action is measured in terms of forgone opportunities, that rational people make decisions by comparing marginal cost and marginal benefits, and that people change their behavior in response to the incentives they face.2. The fundamental lessons about interactions among people are th

12、at trade can be mutually beneficial, that markets are usually a good way of coordinating trade among people, and that the government can potentially improve outcomes if there is some market failure or if the market outcome is inequitable.3. The fundamental lessons about the economy as a whole are th

13、at productivity is the ultimate source of living standards, that the money growth is the ultimate source of inflation, and the society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.Chapter 2 Thinking Like an Economist1. Circular-flow diagram: a visual model of the economy that shows

14、how dollars flow through markets among households and firms2. The production possibilities frontier: a graph that shows the combination of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology. It shows the opportunity cost of

15、one good as measured in terms of the other good. It shows the tradeoff between the production of different goods at a given time, but the tradeoff can change over time3. Microeconomics: the study of how households and firms make decision and how the interact in markets4. Macroeconomics: the study of

16、 economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth5. Positive statements: claims that attempt to describe the world as it is6. Normative statements: claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should be7. Normative statements cannot come from positive analysis alone,

17、they involve value judgments as wellSummary:1. Economists try to address their subject with a scientific objectivity. Like all scientists, they make appropriate assumptions and build simplified models in order to understand the world around them. Two simple economic models are the circular-flow diag

18、ram and the production possibilities frontier2. The field of economics is divided into two subfields: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Macroeconomists study decision-making by households and firms and the interaction among households and firms in the marketplace. Macroeconomists study the forces a

19、nd trends that affect the economy as a whole.3. A positive statement is an assertion about how the world is. A normative statement is an assertion about how the world ought to be. When economists make normative statements, they are acting more as policy advisers than scientists.4. Economists who adv

20、ise policymakers offer conflicting advice either because of differences in scientific judgments or because of differences in values. At other times, economists are united in the advice the offer, but policymakers may choose to ignore it.Chapter 3 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade1. Absolute a

21、dvantage: the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivity2. Comparative advantage: the comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity cost3. Imports: goods produced abroad and sold domestically4. Exports: goods produced domestically and sold abroadSummar

22、y1. Each person consumes goods and services produced by many other people both in our country and around the world. Interdependence and trade are desirable because they allow everyone to enjoy a greater quantity and variety of goods and services.2. There are two ways to compare the abilities of two

23、people in producing a good. The person who can produce the good with the smaller quantity of inputs is said to have an absolute advantage in producing the good. The person who has the smaller opportunity cost of producing the good is said to have a comparative advantage, the gains from trade are bas

24、ed on comparative advantage, not absolute advantage.3. Trade makes everyone better off because it allows people to specialize in those activities in which they have a comparative advantage.4. The principle of comparative advantage applies to countries as well as to people. Economists use the princip

25、le of comparative advantage to advocate free trade among countries.Chapter 4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand1. Competitive market: a market in which there are many buyer san sellers so that each has a negligible impact on the market price2. Perfect competitive markets are defined by two prima

26、ry characteristics: 1 the goods offered for sale are all the same and 2 the buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buyer or seller can influence the market price. The market determines the price; buyers and sellers are price takers.3. Monopolistically competitive market: it contains many

27、sellers but each offers a slightly different product4. Oligopoly: it has a few sellers that do not always compete aggressively5. Monopoly: the market has only one seller and the seller sets the price6. Quantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase7. Law of dema

28、nd: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good rises 8. Law of supply: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises9. Law of supply and demand: the claim that the price of any good

29、 adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded of the good into balance10. Demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded11. Supply schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantit

30、y supplied12. Demand curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded13. Supply curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied14. Market demand: the sum of all the individual demands for a particular good or service15.

31、 Variables that influence demand: income, price of related goods, tastes, expectations, number of buyers16. Variables that influence supply: input prices, technology, expectation, number of sellersExpectation: if the seller expects the price of a good to rise in the future, he will put some of his c

32、urrent production into storage and supply less to the market today17. Normal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand18. Inferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an decrease in demand19. Substitutes: two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to an increase in the demand for the other20. Complements: two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to a decrease in the demand for the other21.