语言学2.docx

语言学2.docx

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语言学2

IntroductiontoGeneralLinguistics

（Outlineofthelectures）

OverviewofLinguisticsandLanguage

（FourPeriods）

I.Introductiontothecourse

A.Somefeatures:

1.Theoretical:

probablymoreabstractorabstrusethansomeothercourses;withmorespecialterms,concepts,definitions,hypotheses,etc.

2.Rudimentaryandincomprehensive（becauseoflimitedtime,asemesteronly）

3.BriefandCondensed

4.Controversial:

possiblywithcertainopen-endedquestions,argumentsaboutordifferentviewsonthesamephenomenonorissue,opentofurtherresearch

B.Requirements:

1.beingserious

2.beingpatient

3.beingattentive

II.Whatisgenerallinguistics

A.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage/thescienceoflanguage.（socialsciencev.naturalscience）

B.Somecannons/principlesofscience:

1.exhaustive—adequatetreatmentofallrelevantmaterials/data;thoroughinthetreatmentofproblems

2.consistent—absenceofcontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement

3.economical—briefwhilebeingpreciseandexplicit;preferenceofshorteraccounts,e.g.usingformulae&abbreviation

4.objective—allowingnoprejudice;nottobeethnocentricorbiased;exemptfromsubjectiveexamination,statementorconclusion;thereisnoprimitivelanguage.（citingsomemisconceptions）

5.empirical—theveryhallmarkofscienceformostpeople,indicatingthatlinguisticsshouldnotbespeculativeorintuitive,butwithpubliclyverifiabledataobtainedbymeansofobservationorexperiment.“Empirical”doesnotimplyanycommitmentto“Empiricism”,whichreferstothephilosophicalviewthatallknowledgecomesfromexperience,perceptionandsense-data.

C.Define“generallinguistic”

1.what“general”means

2.thescopeofgenerallinguistics

3.severaldichotomies/pairsofdistinctions:

Descriptivevs.Prescriptive

Diachronicvs.Synchronic

Theoretical/generalvs.Applied

Microlinguisticsvs.Macrolinguistics

III.Whatistheuseoflinguistics

Thereareanumberofpurposesforwhichwebothertostudylanguageinascientificway,forinstance:

A.tounderstandourhumanityortostudywhatmakesushuman.Thepossessionoflanguageamongotherattributesdistinguishesmanfromothercreatures/animals.

B.toknowtheindispensableroleoflanguageinourlife.Togetinsightintothenatureoflanguageisabsolutelyconducivetowhatwedowithlanguage.

C.toapplylinguistictheoriestootherdisciplines.Linguisticsisapilotscience.

D.tohelpuswithusingalanguageorlanguages.

IV.Abriefreviewofsomefamouslinguistsandtheircontributions

V.Whatislanguage

A.certaindefinitions

B.designfeatures

1.arbitrariness

2.duality

3.productivity

4.displacement

5.discreteness

C.functionsoflanguage

1.micro-functions

a.toreleasenervous/physicalenergy（physiologicalfunction）（expressive）

b.forpurposeofsociability（phaticfunction）

c.toprovidearecord（recordfunction）

d.toidentifyandclassifythings（identifyingfunction）

e.tothink（reasoningfunction）

f.tocommunicateideasorfeelings（communicatingfunction）

g.togivedelight（pleasurefunction）

2.macro-functions

a.ideationalfunction

b.interpersonalfunction

c.poeticfunction

d.textualfunction

PhoneticsandPhonology

（fourperiods）

I.Differentlevelsoflanguage

A.Possibleandnecessarytoseparatelanguageintoseverallevels

B.Differentwaysofseparation

II.Basicknowledgeofphonetics

A.Theaimsofphonetics

1.differenttypesofphonetics

B.ArticulatoryApparatus/Vocalorgans/tract

C.Twomajortypesofspeechsoundsintermsofarticulatorycharacteristics

1.consonants/contoids

2.vowels/vocoids

3.vowel-likeconsonants

D.Twomeasurestodistinguishconsonants

1.Placeofarticulation（articulatorsinvolved）

2.Mannerofarticulation

E.Severaldimensions/parametersemployedtodistinguishvowels

1.Heightofthetongue（high,middle/mid,low）

2.Positionofthehighestpartofthetongue（front,central,back）

3.Degreeofliprounding/shapeoflips（rounded,unrounded/spreading）

4.Lengthofthevowel（long,short）

5.Pureorgliding（monophthong,diphthong）

6.Nasalornot

F.PrimaryandSecondaryCardinalVowelsdevisedbyDanielJones（16cardinalVowels--total）

III.Basicknowledgeofphonology

A.Theaimsofphonology

B.Phonemeandallophone

1.Definitionsofphonemeandallophone

2.Differentlanguageshavedifferentphonemesystems.

3.Threecriterialinguistsusetogroupphonesintophonemes:

a.Freevariation

b.Complementarydistribution

c.Phoneticsimilarity（whichcancompensatefortheloopholeofthefirsttwocriteria.）

4.Distinctivefeatures

C.Phonologicalrules

1.Threespecificpurpose:

a.classofsounds

b.context/phoneticenvironment

c.phoneticchanges

2.AssimilationRules:

a.explanationsofassimilation

b.nasalassimilation

c.nasalization

IV.Suprasegmentalfeatures

Morphology

（fourperiods）

I.Word-structure

A.Whatisaofword?

B.Differentkindsofwords

C.Analyzingwords

II.Definitionofmorphology

A.Theobjectiveofmorphology

B.Therelationshipbetweenmorphologyandsyntax

C.Twofieldsofmorphology

1.inflection

2.word-formation

a.derivational

b.compound

III.Basicknowledgeofmorphemeandallomorph

A.Whatisamorpheme?

B.Theclassesofmorphemes:

1.Freemorpheme

2.Boundmorpheme

C.Stem,rootandaffix

D.Whatisanallomorph?

E.Twodifferentapproachestodescribingallomorphs:

1.Phonologicallyconditioned

2.Grammaticalconditioned

IV.Relationbetweenphoneme&morpheme

V.Somemorphologicalchanges

A.Loss

B.Addition

C.Metathesis

D.Assimilation

Semantics（fourperiods）

I.Whatissemantics

A.Itsaim

B.Itshistory

C.Itsproblem

II.Differentkindsofmeaning

A.Meaningatdifferentlevelsoflanguage:

1.Lexicalmeaning（cf.“Senserelations”）

2.Sentencemeaning（studiedinseveralaspects）（Crystal,2002:

107）

B.Seventypesofmeaning（classifiedbyLeech）（Leech,1981:

9-23）

III.Referentialtheory

A.Senseandreference

B.‘Semiotictriangle’ofOgden&Richards（Ogden&Richards,1989:

11）

IV.Basicknowledgeofformal/logicsemantics

A.Propositionalcalculus

1.Logicalconnectives

2.Truthtableforthetwo-placeconnectives

B.Predicatecalculus

1.Simplifiedpredicatecalculus

2.Universalquantifiervs.existentialquantifier

C.Someformalizedsenserelations

1.symmetric（vs.asymmetric）

2.transitive（vs.intransitive）

3.Reflexive（vs.irreflexive）

V.Senserelations

A.Synonymy

1.Definitionofsynonymy

2.Whyaretherenorealsynonyms?

a.belongingtodifferentdialects

b.usedindifferentstyles（differentsocialsenseinLeech’sterms）

c.indifferentemotive（orevaluative）meanings

d.withdifferentcollocativemeanings（Collocationallyrestricted）

（Palmer,1983:

89-91）

B.Antonymy

1.Definitionofantonymy

2.Threemajortypesofantonymy:

a.Gradingantonymy

b.Complementary（binary）antonymy

c.Converseantonymy（relationalopposite）

C.Hyponymy

VI.Ambiguity

Syntax

（FourPeriods）

I.Whatissyntax?

A.Definitionofsyntax

1.Morphologicalanalysisofthewordsyntax:

a.syn-puttingthingstogether;combingofseparatepartstoformacomplexwhole（e.g.synthesis）

b.tax-arrange,puttingthingsinorderorinaprincipledway

2.Syntax-Ascientificstudyoftheways（rulesorprinciples）inwhichwordsarecombinedtoformsentences.

3.Whatistherelationshipbetweensyntaxandgrammar?

a.Grammarinitsbroadsenseisequaltomorphologyplusgrammar.

b.Grammarinitsnarrowsensejustmeanssyntax.

B.Whattobestudiedinsyntax

1.Whattobeputtogether:

syntacticelements

2.Syntacticrelationsbetweensyntacticelements

3.Differentviewsonthewaysinwhichsyntacticelementsareorganizedintosentences

a.thetraditionalgrammar（prescriptive）

b.thestructuralgrammar（descriptive）

c.thegenerativegrammar（interpretive）

d.thefunctionalgrammar（interpretive）

II.Thetraditionalgrammar

A.Whatistraditionalgrammar?

1.Timespan:

fromancientIndiatothebeginningofthe20thcentury

2.Characteristics

a.Prescriptivism（*Whodidyousee?

/Whomdidyousee?

）

b.Focusonwrittenlanguage

B.Syntacticelements:

wordsandtheirdefiningproperties

1.Definingpropertiesofnouns:

number,genderandcase

a.number

b.gender

c.case

2.Definingpropertiesofverbs:

tense,aspectandvoice

a.tense

b.aspect

c.voice

d.finiteness（Hewenttoschool./Hewantedtogotoschool.）

e.mood（declarative,interrogative,imperative,subjunctive）

C.Relationsbetweenwords

1.Agreementrelationsbetweenwords

a.Agreementbetweennounsandtheirarticles

b.Agreementbetweensubjectsandtheirverbs

c.Agreementbetweenarticles/adjectivesandnouns

2.Governmentrelations

D.Thewaywordsareorganizedintosentence:

partsofspeeches

1.Partsofspeechesinaclause

a.Subjects

b.Predicates

c.Objects

d.Attributives

e.Adverbials

f.Complements

2.ClausepatternsinEnglish

3.Coordinateclauses

4.Subordinateclauses

III.Thestructuralapproach

A.What“structural”means

1.Saussureandstructurallinguistics

2.Signifiedandsignifier

3.Descriptivism

B.Wordclassandsentenceanalysis

1.Distinctionbetweenformclasswordsandfunctionwords

a.Formclasswords（nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbials,etc.）

b.Functionwords（determiners,auxiliaries,modifiers,prepositions,etc.）

2.Constituentsandconstructions

3.Immediateconstituentanalysis

a.HowtocarryouttheICanalysis?

b.WhatisthecriterionofdividingtheICsinaconstruction?

c.AdvantagesaswellasdisadvantagesofICanalysis

4.Endocentricconstructionsandexocentricconstructions

C.Relationsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction

1.Syntagmaticandp