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2.因果关系错误：
不是由于结婚才导致他取得科技进步。
时序因果类错误。
3.由个体推整体。
广告练习：
喝了哇哈哈，吃饭就是香。
条件不充分
要想皮肤好，早晚用大宝。
条件不充分。
牙好胃口就好：
样本小，条件不充分。
二.Argument整体结构
第一段：
开头段。
主要是归纳论点，说明论点有问题，存在逻辑漏洞，准备发起进攻。
第二段和第三段甚至第四段：
分类别去攻击各个逻辑错误。
第五段：
结尾段。
作者的结论似乎是合理的，但是通过论证，不是这样的。
因此作者在做出决定之前，应该还要考虑其他情况。
三.如何写开头段？
例.重复结论+扼要重述论据+转折（总论）
InthismemothevicepresidentofNature'
sWayCNW）,achainofstoressellinghealthfoodandhealth-relatedproducts,recommendsopeningastoreinPlamesville.TosupportthisrecommendationthevicepresidentcitesthefollowingfactsaboutPlainesville:
（1）salesofexerciseshoesandclothingareatall-timehighs;
（2）thelocalhealthclubismorepopularthanever;
and（3）thecity'
sschoolchildrenarerequiredtoparticipateinafitnessprogram.Closescrutinyofeachofthesefacts,however,revealsthatnoneofthemlendcrediblesupporttotherecommendation.
四.开头段的写法
Merelybasedonunfoundedassumptionanddubious（suspicious）evidence,thestatementdrawsaconclusionthat_____.Tosubstantiate（support）theconclusion,thearguerpointsoutevidencethat_____.Inaddition,heindicatesthat_____.Furthermore,hecitestheresultofarecentsurveyinsupportofthisrecommendation.Atfirstglance,theauthor’sargumentappearstobesomewhatconvincing,butfurtherreflectionrevealsthatitomitssomesubstantialconcernsthatshouldbeaddressedtosubstantiatetheargument.Inmypointofview,thisargumentsuffersfromNlogicalflaws.
1.先在开头段指出原文的conclusion
2.指出作者引用哪些evidenceorassumption
3.指出存在几个flaw
Inthisargument,theauthorconcludesthat,tosupporthisconclusion,hepointsoutthat____.Inaddition,heinfersthat____.Furthermore,thearguersitesasatypicalexampleinsupportofhisrecommendation.However,thisalone/onlythisdonotconstitutealogicalargumentinfavorofitsconclusion,andfailstoprovideconvincingsupport,makingthisargumentsoundandinvulnerable.
五.如何写正文段
逻辑错误的攻击顺序
1.按照逻辑错误出现的顺序，分段顺序攻击。
（不特别推荐）
2.按照逻辑错误主次进行分段攻击
3.让步式攻击法（重点）
1）sevenyearsago外推类错误
2）sincethen时序性因果错误
3）weshouldadoptourownsetof…错误类比
六.如何写结尾段
1.不要概括作者的某种结论
2.对于无根据的调查和比较是不能说明任何问题。
七.结尾段的具体写法
Tosumup,thisarguerfailstosubstantiateitsclaimthat_____,becausetheevidencescitedintheanalysisdoesnotlendstrongsupporttowhatthearguermaintains.Tomaketheargumentmoreconvincing,thearguerwouldhavetoprovidemoreinformationwithregardto_____.Additionally,hewouldhavetodemonstratethat_____.Therefore,iftheargumenthadincludedthegivenfactorsdiscussedabove,itwouldhavebeenmorethoroughandlogicallyacceptable.
八.各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言重点。
调查类错误包含子类多，存在题目量大。
所以重要。
标志词：
1.Survey/Study：
核心攻击两大问题：
a.样本质量b.样本数量
（1）Procedure
A.Selectivesample选择性、片面性样本（片面的、特定人群的，最后缺得到了普遍性结论。
）
Eg.题库8
Thefollowingappearedintheeditorialsectionofacorporatenewsletter:
“Thecommonnotionthatworkersaregenerallyapatheticaboutmanagementissuesisfalse,oratleastoutdated:
arecentlypublishedsurveyindicatesthat79percentofthenearly1,200workerswhorespondedtosurveyquestionnairesexpressedahighlevelofinterestinthetopicsofcorporaterestructuringandredesignofbenefitsprograms.”
Discusshowwellreasoned...etc.
无法判断1200人调查能否代表全部工人看法。
题库10
Thefollowingappearedintheeditorialsectionofalocalnewspaper:
“Thispastwinter,200studentsfromWaymarshStateCollegetraveledtothestatecapitolbuildingtoprotestagainstproposedcutsinfundingforvariousstatecollegeprograms.Theother12,000Waymarshstudentsevidentlyweren’tsoconcernedabouttheireducation:
theyeitherstayedoncampusorleftforwinterbreak.Sincethegroupwhodidnotprotestisfarmorenumerous,itismorerepresentativeofthestate’scollegestudentsthanaretheprotesters.
Thereforethestatelegislatureneednotheedtheappealsoftheprotestingstudents.”
调查类错误攻击思路：
反过来攻击。
逆向说：
样本选择随机是具有代表性的。
B.Quantityofthesample
样本数量少，要受到质疑；
数据多也要质疑，比如1万人，看似多，但只占0.1%。
a.样本数量要大b.样本要随机。
题库25题。
重点。
Thefollowingappearedaspartofanarticleinamagazineonlifestyles:
“Twoyearsago,CityLwaslisted14thinanannualsurveythatrankscitiesaccordingtothequalityoflifethatcanbeenjoyedbythoselivinginthem.ThisinformationwillenablepeoplewhoaremovingtothestateinwhichCityLislocatedtoconfidentlyidentifyoneplace,atleast,whereschoolsaregood,housingisaffordable,peoplearefriendly,theenvironmentissafe,andtheartsflourish.”Discusshowwellreasoned...etc.
作者没有说调查了多少城市，调查的城市越多，论证越有力，反之也成立。
模板：
Unlessthesurveyorssampledasufficientnumberofanddidsorandomlyacrosstheentirespectrum,thesurveyresultsarenotreliabletogauge_____generally.Thenumberofrespondents/samplesinitselfdoesnotensurerepresentativeness.Forexample,ifthesampleincludedonly,thentheresultswouldnodoubtsuggest.Orif_____,（1200）wouldaccountforonlyalittlepercentage,whichwouldrenderstheresultofthesurveymeaningless.
（2）Resultofthesurvey
A.Dothestatisticsmakeanymeaningfulness?
数据是否有意义？
数据即使准确，但是有没有意义？
题库17题
Thefollowingappearedinanarticleinaconsumer-productsmagazine:
“Twooftoday’sbest-sellingbrandsoffull-strengthprescriptionmedicationforthereliefofexcessstomachacid,Acid-EaseandPepticaid,arenowavailableinmildernonprescriptionforms.Doctorshavewritten76millionmoreprescriptionsforfull-strengthAcid-Easethanforfull-strengthPepticaid.SopeoplewhoneedaneffectivebutmildernonprescriptionmedicationforthereliefofexcessstomachacidshouldchooseAcid-Ease.”
Full-strengthmilder错误类比
作者说：
强力的AE比强力的P多卖出，AE效果比P要好。
驳斥：
即使强力的AE比强力的P要好，但是仍然不能得出温和的AE比温和的P要好。
虽然AE比P多卖，但并不一定就是AE比P要好。
有可能AE上市早等等原因。
医生可能因为疗效以外的其他原因偏好AE，如生产商、价位等。
题库43题：
Thefollowingappearedinanarticleinthehealthsectionofanewspaper:
“Thereisacommonmisconceptionthatuniversityhospitalsarebetterthancommunityorprivatehospitals.Thisnotionisunfounded,however:
theuniversityhospitalsinourregionemploy15percentfewerdoctors,havea20percentlowersuccessrateintreatingpatients,makefarlessoverallprofit,andpaytheirmedicalstaffconsiderablylessthandoprivatehospitals.Furthermore,manydoctorsatuniversityhospitalstypicallydividetheirtimeamongteaching,conductingresearch,andtreatingpatients.Fromthisitseemsclearthatthequalityofcareatuniversityhospitalsislowerthanthatatotherkindsofhospitals.”
医生人数少不一定医术差；
治愈率与所接触病人情况联系大。
B.Arethestatisticsmisleadinglyvague?
只要出现数据，绝对有问题。
①攻击“无相对比值”（虽然数量大，但是只占很小部分）
Theargumenttellsusthat“many”（anumberof）_____.However,thespeakerfailstoindicatethepercentageof_____,sothisevidenceisfartoovaguetobemeaningful.
②攻击“无绝对数值”（虽然比例大，但是总量小。
比如只有10个人投票。
Theauthorfailstoprovideinformationregardingtheabsolutenumberof____.
题库39题
ThefollowingappearedinanAviaAirlinesdepartmentalmemorandum:
“Onaverage,9outofevery1,000passengerswhotraveledonAviaAirlineslastyearfiledacomplaintaboutourbaggage-handlingprocedures.Thismeansthatalthoughsome1percentofourpassengerswereunhappywiththoseprocedures,theoverwhelmingmajoritywerequitesatisfiedwiththem;
thusitwouldappearthatareviewoftheproceduresisnotimportanttoourgoalofmaintainingorincreasingthenumberofAvia’spassengers.”
攻击：
缺乏绝对数值。
如果乘客量大，那么不满意的乘客数量很多。
仍然能反映出航空公司的服务质量差。
C.Respondents
Therespondentsmustbestatisticallysignificantinnumberandrepresentativeoftheoverall_____.
回应者问题。
所有的回应者都无法代表被调查人，更无法代表整体被调查对象。
题库8.
（3）Whoconductedthesurvey?
调查机构
Thesurveyorshouldbenonaligned/cross-bencher.
题库13题
Thefollowingappearedaspartofacampaigntoselladvertisingtimeonalocalradiostationtolocalbusinesses:
“TheCumquatCafé
beganadvertisingonourlocalradiostationthisyearandwasdelightedtoseeitsbusinessincreaseby10percentoverlastyear’stotals.Theirsuccessshowsyouhowyoucanuseradioadvertisingtomakeyourbusinessmoreprofitable.”
（4）Whenwasthesurveyconducted?
调查时间：
做调查的时间和得出结果的时间要足够近。
Athresholdproblemisthattheeditorialneglectstoindicatehowrecentlyhesurveywasactuallyconducted.Whensamplesareusedtomakegeneralclaimsaboutaparticulargroup,thesamplesshouldbecloseenoughintimetothegeneralization.Allweknowinthiseditorialisthatthesurveywasrecentlypublished.Thelessrecentthesurveyitself,thelessreliabletheresultstoindicatecurrentinterestlevels.
2.SufficientEvidenceandNecessaryCondition
（1）SufficientEvidence攻击对方条件不充分。
A足以导致B发生，但A不是B发生的完备条件。
B的发生还依赖于其他因素CEF等才能发生。
攻击时：
指出A是一个因素但是不充分，并指出B发生的其他因素。
题库4
ThefollowingappearedinanannouncementissuedbythepublisherofTheMercury,aweeklynewspaper:
“Sinceacompetinglower-pricednewspaper,TheBugle,wasstartedfiveyearsago,TheMercury’scirculationhasdeclinedby10,000readers.Thebestwaytogetmorepeopletor
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