Context.docx
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Context
Context
1.generalintroduction
1)Malinowski(1923)firstproposedtwoterms:
contextofsituation(情境语境)andcontextofculture(文化语境).Contextofsituation==linguisticcontext;contextofculture==non-linguisticcontext.
[languageisamodeofaction(行为方式),notacountersignofthought(不是思想的符号)]
2)Firth:
socialenvironmentoflanguage(语言的社会环境),namely,therelationshipbetweenlanguageandsocialenvironment.
[contextislikegrammarwhichcanservesasthecriteriaofmeasurements(语法与衡量的标准).Itisalsotheinnermentalstate(内部心理状态).Thus,languagehastwomeanings:
contextualmeaning(情境意义)andinternalmeaning(内部意义)]
MalinowskiandFirth:
meaning=usage(意义等于用法)
3)Halliday(1973),JohnLyons(1977)andSearle(1979):
socialcontext(社会语境)whichincludeshistoric-socialcontext,pragmatic-socialcontext.
4)Saeed:
contextualinformation(情境信息).Thefollowingcanberegardedascontext:
knowledge,discourseandbackgroundknowledge.
5)Hymes:
context=SPEAKING
S==setting,scene
P==participants
E==ends(purposeandresults)
A==actsequence
K==key(style)
I==instrumentalities(media)
N==norms(rulesordisciplines)
G==genres(scope)
6)王昌龄在《诗格》中提到“物镜”、“情境”、“意境”。
7)Chinesescholar:
(1)Ct(context)==(N,S,G,P)
(N=语形;S=语义;G==语法;P==语用)
(2)Cs(situationalcontext)==(T,W,A,E,B)
(T==time,W==place,A==actors.E==eventoratc,B==background)
(3)Ce(cognitivecontext)===(A,O,I.M)
(A==actor;O==objects,I==instrument,M==methods)
2.Thefunctionsofcontext
Someexamples:
1)别急,让我喝口水。
2)再等一等,这人快完了。
3)这是谁的耳朵?
4)大爷,您怎么几天就没气啦?
5)新鲜鸡蛋,咱自个下的。
6)Johnchasedthedogwiththestick..
7)Johnchasedthedogwiththebone.
8)Johnchasedthedogwiththewound.
9)Johnchasedthedogwiththeboneandthenthrewitonit.
10)Thebigdogchasedthesmalldogwhichwasfromthenextstreet.
11)Thebigdogchasedthesmalldog,whichwasfromthenextstreet.
Allthesentencesabovehaveambiguousproblems,why?
1)Languageisusedbymanwithdifferentpurposes.
2)Languageisusedinacertainsettingandthereferenceis
alwayschangeable;
3)Sothemeaningofasentenceisdynamic.
Staticcontext----------------------dynamiccontext===mentalfieldofstream(思场流)
(spacecohered)
(referentcohered)
(communicationcohered)
mentalfieldstream==presupposition,propositionandentailment
[boxconcept(框架概念)]
e.g.buy=[(A)buyer,(B)goods,(C)seller,(D)money]
staticcontext==explicitstructure
dynamiccontext==implicitstructure
Frompsychologicalperspective:
schema.
Fromlinguisticperspective:
prototype
日本学者喜桢光正认为语境有8种功能:
绝对功能(absolutefunction)、制约功能(restrictivefunction)、解释功能(explainedfunction)、设计功能(functionofdesign)、滤补功能(compensativefunction)、生成功能(generativefunction)、转化功能(transferredfunction)和习得功能(acquisitivefunction)。
我国学者王希杰认为语境有6种功能,即匹配、定位、定向、填补、生成和预测。
Let’slookatthefollowing:
e.g.Iamwaitingforyouforalongtime.(affectionateform;
complainedform;deterrentform)==(implicitmeaning,oraffectedmeaning)
e.g.Iamhungry.(Iatealittlethismorning;Itistoolateinthemorning;Let’sgointotheinn.Givemesomemoney,please!
….)=(illocutionarymeaning)
e.g.你这个小冤家,净给我添麻烦。
(temporarymeaning)
(situationcanchangethesentencemeaning)
e.g.我去上课。
我去看病。
Eachoftheabovetwosentenceshastwodifferentmeanings
(personalcontextcanchangethesentencemeaning).
Alltheabovecanreflectthefunctionsofcontextindifferentsituationswhichresultfromtheprocessofcognition.
Saeedarguedthat“knowledge”ascontext,including”discourse”,
“backgroundknowledge”and“mutualknowledge”.
e.g.Thebaby’sswallowedthatpie.
Inunderstandingthesentenceasmentionedabove,boththespeakerandhearercanhavethefollowingsourcesfortheknowledgetoestimate.
1)thesourcethatcomputablefromthephysicalcontext(thesituationthatcanbeseen)
2)thesourcethatavailablefromwhathasalreadybeensaid(thereferencethatmentionedalready);
3)thesourcethatfrombackgroundorcommonknowledge(thereferencethatbeknownconventionally)
e.g.窗含西岭千秋雪,门泊东吴万里船。
西岭==?
东吴==?
e.g.A.Iamreading.
B.Metoo.
(discourseascontext)
e.g.A.Itisverycoldtoday.
B.Well,letmeclosethewindow.
(backgroundascontext)
Asforbackgroundknowledge,Stalnaker(1974)usedtheterm
commonground(一般性背景);however,Clark(1994)usedtwoterms:
communalcommonground(团体性常见背景)andpersonalcommonground(个体性常见背景)。
Theformeroneisfortheknowledgesharedbyco-membersofacommunityandthelatteronereferstotheknowledgethatbesharedbytwopeoplefromtheirpastexperienceofeachother,whichislikewhatwillbementionedbelow:
mutualknowledge(共有知识)anddiscussedstronglyinthe80soflastcentury.AccordingtoGibbs(1987),theso-calledmutualknowledgeshouldhavethefollowingconditions:
SandAmutuallyknowapropositionP,andifandonlyif:
SknowsthatP
AknowsthatP
SknowsthatAknowsthatP
AknowsthatSknowsthatAknowsthatP
(S==speaker,A==addressee;P==proposition)
e.g.A.Shallwegoandgetsomeicecream?
B.I’mondiet.(whatbeindicated?
)
A.Domoreout-doorexercise!
(whatbeindicated?
)
B.Itisnotmucheffective.(whatbeindicated?
)
A.Oh,okay.(whatbeindicated?
)
Generallyspeaking,thefunctionofcontextcanbeconcludedastwo:
restrictedfunctionandexplainingfunction.
Theaspectsofrestriction:
(1)scope(thewholeortheparts?
);
(2)orientation(beforeorafter?
aboveorbelow?
in-sideorout-side?
)(3)form(structure,style).
Theaspectsofexplaining:
(1)phonetic(tone,rhythm);
(2)semantic(deepstructure,surfacestructure);(3)rhetoric(structure,effect,rules);(4)pragmatic(fuzziness,ambiguity,pragmatics);(5)lexical(polysemy,transformation,collocation).
AmericanlinguistJ.A.Fishmanconcludedthatcontextmeans“whospeakswhatlanguagetowhomandwhen.)
Let’sdrawapictureforitasfollows:
(context)
Speaker(writer)---------------------------------------------------------Listener(reader)
(torestrict,toexplain)
Or,Subjectivecontext---------------------------------------------Objectivecognition
(adynamicandcognitiveprocess)
Inotherwords:
Contextisaparagraphwhichisconstructedwithsettings,anditisalsoapicturewhichcanbeexplainedinlanguageform.(语境是一段采用场景所构建的文字,也是一幅能用语言来阐释的图画。
)Sinceconstructionandexplanationaredynamicprocess,thus,themeaningofasentenceisofmobility.
3.SituationSemantics(情境语义学)
1)ProposedbyBarwisein1981(situationreplaces“possibleworld”)
2)Itisthereformof“FormalSemantics”byMontague(1970).
3)Itstheoreticalbases:
situationaltheoryandinformationtheory(emphasize‘information’,notthe‘truthvalue’intheprocessofcognition).
4)Thebasicsignals:
a……==information;p==relation;t==time;l==place
Mode:
《P,a,……….a,1》(true)
《P,a,……a,0》(false)
e.g.《看,张三,王五,l,t,1》
《看,张三,s,l,t,0》(s==setting)
If‘s’isasetting,andhasaninformationwhichistrue,thus
S(supports)I
5)Typesofsituation:
utterancesituation(话语情境),embeddingsituation(嵌入情境),resourcesituation(资源情境)anddescribedsituation(描绘情境)
(furtherseethegivenmaterial)