Context.docx

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Context.docx

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Context.docx

Context

Context

1.generalintroduction

1)Malinowski(1923)firstproposedtwoterms:

contextofsituation(情境语境)andcontextofculture(文化语境).Contextofsituation==linguisticcontext;contextofculture==non-linguisticcontext.

[languageisamodeofaction(行为方式),notacountersignofthought(不是思想的符号)]

2)Firth:

socialenvironmentoflanguage(语言的社会环境),namely,therelationshipbetweenlanguageandsocialenvironment.

[contextislikegrammarwhichcanservesasthecriteriaofmeasurements(语法与衡量的标准).Itisalsotheinnermentalstate(内部心理状态).Thus,languagehastwomeanings:

contextualmeaning(情境意义)andinternalmeaning(内部意义)]

MalinowskiandFirth:

meaning=usage(意义等于用法)

3)Halliday(1973),JohnLyons(1977)andSearle(1979):

socialcontext(社会语境)whichincludeshistoric-socialcontext,pragmatic-socialcontext.

4)Saeed:

contextualinformation(情境信息).Thefollowingcanberegardedascontext:

knowledge,discourseandbackgroundknowledge.

5)Hymes:

context=SPEAKING

S==setting,scene

P==participants

E==ends(purposeandresults)

A==actsequence

K==key(style)

I==instrumentalities(media)

N==norms(rulesordisciplines)

G==genres(scope)

6)王昌龄在《诗格》中提到“物镜”、“情境”、“意境”。

7)Chinesescholar:

(1)Ct(context)==(N,S,G,P)

(N=语形;S=语义;G==语法;P==语用)

(2)Cs(situationalcontext)==(T,W,A,E,B)

(T==time,W==place,A==actors.E==eventoratc,B==background)

(3)Ce(cognitivecontext)===(A,O,I.M)

(A==actor;O==objects,I==instrument,M==methods)

2.Thefunctionsofcontext

Someexamples:

1)别急,让我喝口水。

2)再等一等,这人快完了。

3)这是谁的耳朵?

4)大爷,您怎么几天就没气啦?

5)新鲜鸡蛋,咱自个下的。

6)Johnchasedthedogwiththestick..

7)Johnchasedthedogwiththebone.

8)Johnchasedthedogwiththewound.

9)Johnchasedthedogwiththeboneandthenthrewitonit.

10)Thebigdogchasedthesmalldogwhichwasfromthenextstreet.

11)Thebigdogchasedthesmalldog,whichwasfromthenextstreet.

Allthesentencesabovehaveambiguousproblems,why?

1)Languageisusedbymanwithdifferentpurposes.

2)Languageisusedinacertainsettingandthereferenceis

alwayschangeable;

3)Sothemeaningofasentenceisdynamic.

Staticcontext----------------------dynamiccontext===mentalfieldofstream(思场流)

(spacecohered)

(referentcohered)

(communicationcohered)

mentalfieldstream==presupposition,propositionandentailment

[boxconcept(框架概念)]

e.g.buy=[(A)buyer,(B)goods,(C)seller,(D)money]

staticcontext==explicitstructure

dynamiccontext==implicitstructure

Frompsychologicalperspective:

schema.

Fromlinguisticperspective:

prototype

日本学者喜桢光正认为语境有8种功能:

绝对功能(absolutefunction)、制约功能(restrictivefunction)、解释功能(explainedfunction)、设计功能(functionofdesign)、滤补功能(compensativefunction)、生成功能(generativefunction)、转化功能(transferredfunction)和习得功能(acquisitivefunction)。

我国学者王希杰认为语境有6种功能,即匹配、定位、定向、填补、生成和预测。

Let’slookatthefollowing:

e.g.Iamwaitingforyouforalongtime.(affectionateform;

complainedform;deterrentform)==(implicitmeaning,oraffectedmeaning)

e.g.Iamhungry.(Iatealittlethismorning;Itistoolateinthemorning;Let’sgointotheinn.Givemesomemoney,please!

….)=(illocutionarymeaning)

e.g.你这个小冤家,净给我添麻烦。

(temporarymeaning)

(situationcanchangethesentencemeaning)

e.g.我去上课。

我去看病。

Eachoftheabovetwosentenceshastwodifferentmeanings

(personalcontextcanchangethesentencemeaning).

Alltheabovecanreflectthefunctionsofcontextindifferentsituationswhichresultfromtheprocessofcognition.

Saeedarguedthat“knowledge”ascontext,including”discourse”,

“backgroundknowledge”and“mutualknowledge”.

e.g.Thebaby’sswallowedthatpie.

Inunderstandingthesentenceasmentionedabove,boththespeakerandhearercanhavethefollowingsourcesfortheknowledgetoestimate.

1)thesourcethatcomputablefromthephysicalcontext(thesituationthatcanbeseen)

2)thesourcethatavailablefromwhathasalreadybeensaid(thereferencethatmentionedalready);

3)thesourcethatfrombackgroundorcommonknowledge(thereferencethatbeknownconventionally)

e.g.窗含西岭千秋雪,门泊东吴万里船。

西岭==?

东吴==?

e.g.A.Iamreading.

B.Metoo.

(discourseascontext)

e.g.A.Itisverycoldtoday.

B.Well,letmeclosethewindow.

(backgroundascontext)

Asforbackgroundknowledge,Stalnaker(1974)usedtheterm

commonground(一般性背景);however,Clark(1994)usedtwoterms:

communalcommonground(团体性常见背景)andpersonalcommonground(个体性常见背景)。

Theformeroneisfortheknowledgesharedbyco-membersofacommunityandthelatteronereferstotheknowledgethatbesharedbytwopeoplefromtheirpastexperienceofeachother,whichislikewhatwillbementionedbelow:

mutualknowledge(共有知识)anddiscussedstronglyinthe80soflastcentury.AccordingtoGibbs(1987),theso-calledmutualknowledgeshouldhavethefollowingconditions:

SandAmutuallyknowapropositionP,andifandonlyif:

SknowsthatP

AknowsthatP

SknowsthatAknowsthatP

AknowsthatSknowsthatAknowsthatP

(S==speaker,A==addressee;P==proposition)

e.g.A.Shallwegoandgetsomeicecream?

B.I’mondiet.(whatbeindicated?

A.Domoreout-doorexercise!

(whatbeindicated?

B.Itisnotmucheffective.(whatbeindicated?

A.Oh,okay.(whatbeindicated?

Generallyspeaking,thefunctionofcontextcanbeconcludedastwo:

restrictedfunctionandexplainingfunction.

Theaspectsofrestriction:

(1)scope(thewholeortheparts?

);

(2)orientation(beforeorafter?

aboveorbelow?

in-sideorout-side?

)(3)form(structure,style).

Theaspectsofexplaining:

(1)phonetic(tone,rhythm);

(2)semantic(deepstructure,surfacestructure);(3)rhetoric(structure,effect,rules);(4)pragmatic(fuzziness,ambiguity,pragmatics);(5)lexical(polysemy,transformation,collocation).

AmericanlinguistJ.A.Fishmanconcludedthatcontextmeans“whospeakswhatlanguagetowhomandwhen.)

Let’sdrawapictureforitasfollows:

(context)

Speaker(writer)---------------------------------------------------------Listener(reader)

(torestrict,toexplain)

Or,Subjectivecontext---------------------------------------------Objectivecognition

(adynamicandcognitiveprocess)

Inotherwords:

Contextisaparagraphwhichisconstructedwithsettings,anditisalsoapicturewhichcanbeexplainedinlanguageform.(语境是一段采用场景所构建的文字,也是一幅能用语言来阐释的图画。

)Sinceconstructionandexplanationaredynamicprocess,thus,themeaningofasentenceisofmobility.

3.SituationSemantics(情境语义学)

1)ProposedbyBarwisein1981(situationreplaces“possibleworld”)

2)Itisthereformof“FormalSemantics”byMontague(1970).

3)Itstheoreticalbases:

situationaltheoryandinformationtheory(emphasize‘information’,notthe‘truthvalue’intheprocessofcognition).

4)Thebasicsignals:

a……==information;p==relation;t==time;l==place

Mode:

《P,a,……….a,1》(true)

《P,a,……a,0》(false)

e.g.《看,张三,王五,l,t,1》

《看,张三,s,l,t,0》(s==setting)

If‘s’isasetting,andhasaninformationwhichistrue,thus

S(supports)I

5)Typesofsituation:

utterancesituation(话语情境),embeddingsituation(嵌入情境),resourcesituation(资源情境)anddescribedsituation(描绘情境)

(furtherseethegivenmaterial)

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