针对巴基斯坦农产品出口的壁垒世界贸易组织实施动植物卫生检疫措施协定产生的作用外文翻译.docx

针对巴基斯坦农产品出口的壁垒世界贸易组织实施动植物卫生检疫措施协定产生的作用外文翻译.docx

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针对巴基斯坦农产品出口的壁垒世界贸易组织实施动植物卫生检疫措施协定产生的作用外文翻译

外文翻译

原文

BarriersagainstAgriculturalExportsfromPakistan:

TheRoleofWTOSanitaryandPhytosanitaryAgreement

MaterialSource:

ThePakistanDevelopmentReview42:

4PartII（Winter2003）pp.487–510

Author:

KHALIDMUSTAFA

I.INTRODUCTION

TherehasbeengrowingrecognitionthatSanitaryandPhytosanitary（SPS）agreementcanimpedetradeinagriculturalandfoodproducts.Pakistan,inparticularexperiencesproblemsinmeetingtheSPSrequirementsofdevelopedcountriesand,itisclaimed,thiscanseriouslyimpedeitsabilitytoexportagriculturalandfoodproducts.AttemptshavebeenmadetoreducethetradedistortiveeffectsofSPSmeasuresthrough,forexample,theWorldTradeOrganisation（WTO）SPSAgreement,althoughitisclaimedthatcurrentinitiativesfailtoaddressmanyofthekeyproblemsexperiencedbyPakistanandotherdevelopingcountries.

ThepresentpaperexploresimplicationsofSanitaryandPhytosanitary（SPS）agreementonexportsofagriculturalandfoodproductsfromPakistan.ItidentifiestheproblemsthatPakistanfacesinmeetingSPSrequirementsandhowtheserelatetothenatureofSPSmeasuresandthecomplianceresourcesavailabletoGovernmentofPakistanandthesupplychain.ThepaperexaminestheimpactofSPSagreementontheextenttowhichSPSmeasuresimpedeexportsfromPakistan.ItidentifiestheproblemsthatlimitparticipationofPakistanintheSPSagreementanditsconcernsaboutthewayinwhichitcurrentlyoperates.

II.SALIENTFEATURESOFTHESANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARY（SPS）AGREEMENT

TheSPSagreementconcernstheapplicationofSanitaryandPhytosanitarymeasures—inotherwords,foodsafetyandanimalandplanthealthregulations.TheagreementrecognisesthatgovernmentshavetherighttotakeSanitaryandPhytosanitarymeasuresbutthattheyshouldbeappliedonlytotheextentnecessarytoprotecthuman,animalorplantlifeorhealthandshouldnotarbitrarilyorunjustifiablydiscriminatebetweenmemberswhereidenticalorsimilarconditionsprevail.

InordertoharmoniseSanitaryandPhytosanitarymeasuresonaswideabasisaspossible,membersareencouragedtobasetheirmeasuresoninternationalstandards,guidelinesandrecommendationswheretheyexist.However,membersmaymaintainorintroducemeasures,whichresultinhigherstandardsifthereisscientificjustificationorasaconsequenceofconsistentriskdecisionsbasedonanappropriateriskassessment.TheAgreementspellsoutproceduresandcriteriafortheassessmentofriskandthedeterminationofappropriatelevelsofSanitaryorPhytosanitaryprotection.ItisexpectedthatmemberswouldaccepttheSanitaryandPhytosanitarymeasuresofothersasequivalentiftheexportingcountrydemonstratestotheimportingcountrythatitsmeasuresachievetheimportingcountry'sappropriatelevelofhealthprotection.Theagreementincludesprovisionsoncontrol,inspectionandapprovalprocedures.

GiventhatPakistanimplementsqualitativelyorquantitativelylowerSPSstandardsthandevelopedcountries,inprincipletheSPSAgreementshouldhelptofacilitatetradefromPakistantodevelopedcountriesbyimprovingtransparency,promotingharmonisationandpreventingtheimplementationofSPSmeasuresthatcannotbejustifiedscientifically.Muchofthisisdependent,however,ontheabilityofthegovernmenttoparticipateeffectivelyintheAgreement.TheAgreementitselftriestofacilitatethisbyacknowledgingthespecialproblemsthatPakistanandmanyotherdevelopingcountriesfaceincomplyingwithSPSmeasuresandallowingforspecialanddifferentialtreatment.

III.KEYISSUESARISINGFROMTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFSPS

NoworkhasbeenundertakentostudytheimpactofSanitaryandPhytosanitaryagreementofWTOonexportofagriculturalproductsfromPakistan.FewstudieshavehoweveraddressedtheissueofSPSmeasuresanddevelopingcountryexportsdirectly,althoughinmostcasestherelatedcostofcomplianceandimpactoftradeflowsisnotquantified.SPSmeasuresareclaimedtobeanimpedimenttoexportsof,forexample:

fish,spices,livestockproductsandhorticulturalproducts.Moretheoreticalworkhasdemonstratedthatdevelopingcountriesfinditdifficulttotradewithdevelopedcountriesduetodifferencesinqualityequipments,whichinturnreflectprevailingconsumerdemandorthenatureofgovernmentregulation（MurphyandShleifer,1997）.

AnattemptwasundertakentoquantifythecostsofcompliancewithSPSmeasuresinBangladesh.ItwasfoundthatthecostofupgradingsanitaryconditionsintheBangladeshfrozenshrimpindustrytosatisfyEUandUShygienerequirementsamountedto$17.6million,mainlyincurredforupgradingplantsovertheyears1997-98.Thisgaveanaverageexpenditureperplantof$239,630.ThenaturalindustrycostrequiredtomaintainHACCPwasestimatedtobe$2.2millionperannum.Further,theGovernmentofBangladeshwasestimatedtohavespent$283,000overthisperiodandpredictedanexpenditureof$225000perannumtomaintainaHACCPmonitoringprogramme（Cato,1998）.

ThedegreetowhichSPSrequirementsimpededexportsofagriculturalandfoodproductsfromAfricancountrieswasassessedthroughasurveyofCodexAlimentariuscontactpoints.Ofthecountriesthatresponded,57percentindicatedthatexportedproductswererejectedfollowingborderinspection.Themainreasonsweremicrobiologicalspoilageorcontamination.Althoughallthesecountriesinspectedfoodproductspriortoexport,mostconsideredthatfinancialconstraintslimitedtheeffectivenessoftheseproceduresandthat,inparticular,availabletestingandinspectionfacilitieswereinadequate（MutasaandNyamandi,1998）.

ThecostofSPS-relatedprojectssupportedbytheWorldBankwasexaminedasanindicatoroftheresourcesrequiredforthedevelopmentofSPScontrols,bothdomesticallyandrelatedtotrade,inmanydevelopingcountries.Forexample,thecostofachievingdiseaseandpestfreestatustoenableArgentinatoexportmeat,fruitsandvegetableswasreportedtohavebeen$82.7millionovertheperiod1991-96.Similarly,thecostofupgradinghygienestandardsinslaughterhousesinHungaryover1985-91wasestimatedtobe$41.2million（FingerandSchuler,1999）.

SriLankafacedSPSrelatedqualityproblemsinitsproduce,particularlyspicesintermsofpresenceofmould,highmoisturelevelandaflatoxin.Thequalityrelatedproblemsweremainlyduetoculturalpracticesandtechnologicallimitations.Theestimatedaveragevolumelosswasabout5,500metrictonsduring1999-2000andtheestimatedvalueofforeignexchangelossduetonon-compliancewasreportedtobeUS$2.9millionperyear.Thenetlossofemploymentwas2,400personseveryyearasaconsequenceofthelossofexportvolume.Further,thecostofcompliancewithqualityrequirementsintermsofprovidingtrainingto70,000traderswasaboutUS$1.954million（Hearth,2001）.

AbroaderindicationoftheimpactofSPSrequirementsondevelopingcountryexportsofagriculturalandfoodproductsareprovidedbydataonrejectionsfollowingborderinspectionindevelopedcountries.Atthecurrenttime,thesedataareonlysystematicallycollectedandpubliclyavailablefortheUnitedStates.OvertheperiodJune1996toJune1997,thereweresignificantrejectionsofimportsfromAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmericaandtheCaribbeanduetomicrobiologicalcontamination,filthanddecomposition.Thecostofrejectionattheborderwasalsoconsiderable,includinglossofproductvalue,transportandotherexportcosts,andproductre-exportordestruction（FAO,1999）.Thisindicatesconsiderableproblemsthatdevelopingcountrieshaveinmeetingbasicfoodhygienerequirements.

ThereisstrongneedforapplicationofSanitaryandPhytosanitarymeasuresthatincludeenforcementoflawswhichprotecthuman,animalorplantlifeandhealthbasedonscientificevidence,environmentalconsiderationsanduseofchildlabourintheproductionprocessforenhancingexportofagriculturalproductsfromPakistan.Appropriatemeasuresarerequiredforcurtailingillicittradepracticesandensuringqualityofexportsintermsofpurityoftheproduct,environmentalconsiderationsandlabourstandardsinordertocomplywithemergingrequirementsofWTOsatisfactorily.

IV.PARTICIPATIONINTHESPSAGREEMENT

Althoughthemajorityoflowandlowermiddle-incomecountriesaremembersoftheWTO,therateofmembership（62percent）wasfoundsignificantlylowerthanamongstuppermiddleorhighincomecountries（83percentand92percentrespectively）.Likewisethemajorityoflowandlowermiddleincomecountrieswerereportedtobethemembersofthethreemajorinternationalstandardsorganisations,CodexAlimentarius,OIEandIPPC,althoughlessthan30percentwerereportedasmembersofWTOandallthreeoftheseorganisations.

TheSPSAgreementlaysdowncertainrequirementsthataimtoensuretransparencyintheimplementationofSPSmeasuresinmembercountries.MembersarerequiredtoestablishspecificcontactpointstofacilitatecommunicationregardingSPSmeasures.Thisinvolvesfirstly,asinglenational‘enquirypoint’,whichisresponsibleforrespondingtoqueriesfromasinglenational‘notificationauthority’,whichisresponsibleforallproceduresassociatedwithnotificationofneworamendedSPSmeasures.Itwasreportedthatonly65percentoflowandlowermiddleincomecountrieshadspecifiedan‘enquiry’pointandonly59percenthadspecifiedanational‘notificationauthority’untilJune1999.Theseproportionsincluded29leastdevelopedcountries,whichwerenotrequiredtocomplyuntil2000.

ThemostsignificantconstraintofPakistanoneffectiveparticipationintheSPSAgreementisjudgedtobe