《新编语言学教程》课后答案.docx

《新编语言学教程》课后答案.docx

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《新编语言学教程》课后答案

（1）semantics:

thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.

（2）truth-conditionalsemantics:

anapproachthatknowingthemeaningofthesentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse,andknowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionisknowingthepartthatitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesentencecontainingit.

（3）namingtheory:

theviewthatthemeaningofanexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.

（4）behavioristtheory:

theviewthatthemeaningofalinguisticformisdefinedasobservablebehaviorswhichisanapproachdrawingonpsychology.

（5）usetheory:

thesemantictheoryaccordingtowhichthemeaningofanexpressionisdeterminedbyitsuseincommunicationandmoregenerally,insocialinteraction.

（6）sense:

theinherentpartofanexpression’smeaning,togetherwiththecontext,determinesitsreferent.Forexample,knowingthesenseofanounphrasesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorgesuchasthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesin2004allowsonetodeterminethatGeorge

（7）reference:

（insemantics）therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualitiestheystandfor.AnexampleinEnglishistherelationshipbetweenthewordtreeandtheobject“tree”（referent）intherealworld.

（8）conceptualmeaning:

Itmeansthemeaningofwordsmaybediscussedintermsofwhattheydenoteorreferto,alsocalleddenotativeorcognitivemeaning.Itistheessentialandinextricablepartofwhatlanguageisandiswidelyregardedasthecentralfactorinverbalcommunication.Forinstance,theconceptualmeaningof“he”inEnglishisanymalepersonormaleanimal.

（9）connotativemeaning:

Itisthecommunicativemeaningthatawordoracombinationofwordshasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overitspurelyconceptualmeaning.Forexample,theconnotativemeaningof“woman”isemotional,frail,inconstant,irrational,etc.

（10）semanticfield:

theorganizationofrelatedwordsandexpressionsintoasystemwhichshowstheirrelationshiptooneanother.Forexample,kinshiptermssuchasfather,mother,brother,sister,uncle,auntbelongtoasemanticfieldwhoserelevantfeaturesincludegeneration,sex,membershipofthefather’sormother’ssideoffamily.

（11）lexicalgap:

theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguage.Forinstance,inEnglishwehavebrotherversussister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male”and“female”cousin.

（12）componentialanalysis:

（insemantics）anapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalyzesawordintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,themeaningoftheEnglishwordboymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].

（13）semanticfeature:

thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword.Themeaningofwordmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponentsorfeatures.Forexample,thefeature[+male]ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature[+adult],butotherfeaturesareneededtomakeupthewholemeaningoffather.Often,semanticfeaturesareestablishedbycontrastandcanbestatedintermsof[+]and[-],e.g.womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human],[-male]and[+adult].

（14）synonym:

thesenserelationsofequivalenceofmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.small/littleanddead/deceased.

（15）antonym:

thesenserelationofvariouskindsofopposingmeaningbetweenlexicalitems,e.g.big/small,alive/deadandgood/bad.

（16）hyponymy:

thesenserelationbetweentermsinahierarchy,whereamoreparticularterm（thehyponym）isincludedinthemoregeneralone（thesuperordinate）:

XisaY,e.g.abeechisatree,atreeisaplant.

（17）meronym:

thesenserelationbetweenbodyanditspartswhicharenotonlysectionsofthebodybutdefinedintermsofspecificfunctions.Forexample,theheadisthepartofthebodywhichcarriesthemostimportantsenseorgans,i.e.eyes,ears,noseandtongue.

（18）semanticrole:

thewayinwhichthereferentofanounphraseisinvolvedinthesituationdescribedorrepresentedbytheclause,forexampleasagent,patient,orcause.

（19）entailment:

therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone（thesecond）isinferredfromthetruthoftheother,e.g.CordayassassinatedMaratandMaratisdead;ifthefirstistrue,thesecondmustbetrue.

（20）presupposition:

implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!

”

2.

（1）Hewaitedbythebank.

a.Hewaitedbythefinancialinstitutionwhichpeoplecankeeptheirmoneyinorborrowfrom.b.Hewaitedbythebankoftheriver.

（2）Ishereallythatkind?

a.Ishereallythattypeofperson?

b.Ishereallythatkind-hearted?

（3）Weboughtherdogbiscuits.

a.Weboughtdogbiscuitsforher.

b.Weboughtbiscuitsforherdog.

（4）Hesawthatgasolinecanexplode.

a.Hesawthatgasolinecontainerexplode.

b.Hesawthatgasolinemayexplode.

（5）Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.

a.Fiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxesintotal.

b.Eachofthefiftysoldiersshotthreewildfoxes.

（6）Hesawherdrawingpencils.

a.Hesawherpencilsfordrawing.

b.Hesawherdrawingthepictureofpencils.

3.

（2）（4）（5）（8）areantonyms;

（1）（3）（6）（7）aresynonyms.

4.charity:

kindness,sympathy,church,helpful

iron:

strong,brave,hard,determined

mole:

traitor,betrayal,spy

snow:

pure,virgin,clean

street:

homeless,livinghard,pitiable

5.

（1）a.hoardb.scribblec.barn,methodd.olfactory

（2）a.acquireb.tellc.wayd.smell

（3）a.buy,win,steal.b.talk,tellc.road,way,pathd.smell

Thesewordsarelessmarkedintheirsetsbecausetheyaremoreusualandtendtobeusedmorefrequently.Theyconsistofonlyonemorphemeandareeasiertolearnandrememberthanothers.Theyarealsooftenbroaderinmeaningandcannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield.

6.homophones:

sea-see,break-brake;polysemies:

sea,break,prayer,mature,trace,househomonyms:

ear.

7.Inasemanticfield,notalllexicalitemsnecessarilyhavethesamestatus.Thelessmarkedmembersofthesamesemanticfield

（1）areusuallyeasiertolearnandrememberthanmoremarkedmembers;

（2）consistofonlyonemorphemeincontrasttomoremarkedmembers;（3）cannotbedescribedbyusingthenameofanothermemberofthesamefield;（4）tendtobeusedmorefrequentlythanmoremarkedterms;（5）broaderinmeaningthanmoremarkedmembers;（6）arenottheresultofthemetaphoricalusageofthenameofanotherobjectorconcept,butmoremarkedare.

8.

（1）a.bachelor,man,son,paperboy,pope,chief

b.bull,rooster,drake,ram.

The（a）and（b）wordsaremale.

The（a）wordsarehuman.

The（b）wordsareanimals.

（2）a.ask,tell,say,talk,converse

b.shout,whisper,mutter,drawl,holler

The（a）and（b）wordsarerealizedbysounds.

The（a）wordsarenormalvoicequality.

The（b）wordsareproducedbymodifyingone’snormalvoicequality.

（3）a.walk,run,skip,jump,hop,swim

b.fly,skate,ski,ride,cycle,canoe,hang-glide

The（a）and（b）wordsaresports（movement）.

The（a）wordsaresportswithoutinstruments.

The（b）wordsaresportswithinstruments.

（1）pragmatics:

abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinuse.

（2）deixis:

themarkingoftheorientationorpositionofentitiesandsituationswithrespecttocertainpointsofreferencesuchastheplace（here/there）andtime（now/then）ofutterance.

（3）reference:

（insemantics）therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,events,andqualitiestheystandfor.

（4）anaphora:

aprocesswhereawordorphrase（anaphor）refersbacktoanotherwordorphrasewhichwasusedearlierinatextorconversation.

（5）presupposition:

implicitassumptionsabouttheworldrequiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e.g.“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppositionof“Takesomemoretea!

”

（6）SpeechActTheory:

ThetheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Insaying“Sorry”,youareperforminganactofapology.

（7）indirectspeechact:

anutterancewhoseliteralmeaning（location）andintendedmeaning（illocution）aredifferent.Forexample,Canyoupassthesalt?

isliterallyayes/noquestionbutisusuallyutteredasarequestorpolitedirectiveforaction.

（8）theCooperativePrinciple:

aprincipleproposedbythephilosopherPaulGricewherebythoseinvolvedincommunicationassumethatbothpartieswillnormallyseektocooperatewitheachothertoestablishagreedmeaning.Itiscomposedof4maxims:

quality,quantity,relationandmanner.

（9）thePolitenessPrinciple:

politenessisregardedbymostinterlocutorsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Thisprinciplerequiresspeakersto“minimizetheexpressionofimpolitebeliefs”.Itiscomposedof6maxims:

MaximsofTact,Generosity,Approbation,Modesty,AgreementandSympathy.

（10）conversationalimplicature:

theuseofconversationalmaximsintheCooperativePrincipletoproduceextrameaningduringconversation.

2.Deicticexpressions:

I,now,you,that,here,tomorrow.

3.Anaphoricexpressions:

she,him,it.

4.

（1）Heboughtthebeer.

（2）Youhaveawatch.

（3）Weboughtacar.

5.Directacts:

（1）/（5）;Indirectacts:

（2）/（3）/（4）

6.（a）TheMaximofQuality:

（1）Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;

（2）Donotsayth