ProfessorPaulBloom:
IactuallywanttobeginbygoingbacktoFreudandhittingacoupleoflooseends.TherewasapointinmylectureonWednesdaywhereIskippedoversomeparts.Isaid,"Wedon'thavetimeforthis"andIjustwhippedpastit.AndIcouldn'tsleepovertheweekend.I'vebeentormented.Ishouldn'thaveskippedthatandIwanttohit--LetmetellyouwhyIskippedit.ThediscussionIskippedwasthediscussionofwhywewouldhaveanunconsciousatall.So,IwastalkingaboutthescientificallyrespectableideasofFreudandIwanttotalkaboutsomenewideasaboutwhytherecouldbeanunconscious.
Now,thereasonwhyIskippeditisI'mnotsurethisisthebestwaytolookatthequestion.Aswewilllearnthroughoutthecourse,byfarthevastmajorityofwhatourbrainsdo,thevastmajorityofwhatourmindsdo,isunconsciousandwe'reunawareofit.Sotherightquestiontoaskmaynotbe,"Whyaresomethingsunconscious?
"butrather,whyisthistinysubsetofmentallife--whyisthisconscious?
Ontheotherhand,theseclaimsabouttheutilityofunconsciousness,Ithink,areprovocativeandinteresting.SoIjustwantedtoquicklysharethemwithyou.
So,thequestionis,fromanevolutionarystandpoint,"Whywouldanunconsciousevolve?
"Andananswerthatsomepsychologistsandbiologistshavegivenisdeception.So,mostanimalsdosomedeception.Anddeceptiondefinedbroadlyissimplytoactorbeinsomewaythatfoolsothersintobelievingorthinkingorrespondingtosomethingthat'sfalse.
There'sphysicalexamplesofdeception.Whenthreatened,chimpanzees--theirhairstandsuponendandthatmakesthemlookbiggertofoolotherstothinkingthey'remoredangerousthantheyare.There'sananglerfishatthebottomoftheoceanthathasarodstickingupfromthetopofitsheadwithaluretocaptureotherfish鈥�tofooltheminthinkingthatthisissomethingedibleandthentothemselvesbedevoured.Buthumans,primatesingeneralbutparticularlyhumans,aremastersofdeception.Weuseourmindsandourbehaviorsandouractionscontinuallytotrytotrickpeopleintobelievingwhat'snottrue.Wetrytotrickpeople,forinstance,intobelievingthatwe'retougher,smarter,sexier,morereliable,moretrustworthyandsoon,thanwereallyare.Andalargepartofsocialpsychologyconcernsthewayinwhichwepresentourselvestootherpeoplesoastomakethemaximallypositiveimpressionevenwhenthatimpressionisn'ttrue.
Atthesametime,though,we'vealsoevolvedverygoodliedetectionmechanisms.Sonotonlyisthereevolutionarypressureformetolietoyou,formetopersuadeyouforinstance,thatifwe'regoingtohavea--ifyouarethreateningmedon'tthreatenme,Iamnotthesortofmanyoucouldscrewaroundwith.Butthere'sevolutionarypressureforyoutolookandsay,"No.Youarethesortofmanyoucouldscrewaroundwith.Icantell."Sohowdoyoubecomeagoodliar?
Andhere'swheretheunconsciouscomesin.Thehypothesisis:
thebestliesarelieswetellourselves.You'reabetterliar,moregenerally,ifyoubelievetheliethatyou'retelling.
ThiscouldbeillustratedwithastoryaboutAlfredHitchcock.Thestorygoes--Hehatedworkingwithchildactorsbutheoftenhadto.Andthestorygoes--Hewasdealingwithachildactorwhosimplycouldnotcry.And,finallyfrustrated,Hitchcockwenttotheactor,leanedover,whisperedinhisear,"Yourparentshaveleftyouandthey'renevercomingback."Thekidburstintotears.Hitchcocksaid,"Roll鈥榚m"andfilmedthekid.Andthekid,ifyouweretoseehim,you'dsay,"That's--Boy,he's--hereallylooksasifhe'ssad"becausehewas.IfIhadacompetitionwhereI'dgive$100,000tothepersonwholooksthemostasiftheyareinpain,itisaverygoodtactictotakeapenandjamitintoyourgroinbecauseyouwilllookextremelypersuasivelyasifyouareinpain.IfIwanttopersuadeyouthatIloveyou,wouldneverleaveyou,youcantrustmewitheverything,itmaybeasuperbtacticformetobelieveit.Andso,thisaccountoftheevolutionoftheunconsciousisthatcertainmotivationsandgoals,particularlysinisterones,arebettermadetobeunconsciousbecauseifapersondoesn'tknowtheyhavethemtheywillnotgivethemaway.AndthisissomethingIthinkweshouldreturntolateronwhenwetalkaboutsocialinteractionandsocialrelationships.
OneotherthingonFreud--justastoryofthefalsificationofFreud.IwastakingmyyoungerchildhomefromaplaydateonSundayandheaskedmeoutoftheblue,"Whycan'tyoumarryyourmotheroryourfather?
"Now,that'sactuallyadifficultquestiontoask--toanswerforachild,butItriedmybesttogivehimananswer.AndthenIsaid--thenIthoughtbackontheFreudlectureandsoIaskedhim,"Ifyoucouldmarryanybodyyouwant,whowoulditbe?
"imagininghe'dmakeexplicittheOedipalcomplexandnamehismother.Instead,hepausedforamomentandsaid,"Iwouldmarryadonkeyandabigbagofpeanuts."[laughter]Bothhisparentsarepsychologistsandhehatesthesequestionsandattimeshejustscrewsaroundwithus.[laughter]
Okay.LastclassIstartedwithFreudandnowIwanttoturntoSkinner.AndthestoryofSkinnerandscienceissomewhatdifferentfromthestoryofFreud.Freuddevelopedandchampionedthetheoryofpsychoanalysisbyhimself.Itisascloseasyoucouldfindinsciencetoasolitaryinvention.Obviously,hedrewuponallsortsofsourcesandpredecessorsbutpsychoanalysisisidentifiedasFreud'screation.Behaviorismisdifferent.BehaviorismisaschoolofthoughtthatwastherelongbeforeSkinner,championedbypsychologistslikeJohnWatson,forinstance.Skinnercameabitlateintothisbutthereasonwhywe'veheardofSkinnerandwhySkinnerissowellknownishepackagedthesenotions.Heexpandeduponthem;hepublicizedthem;hedevelopedthemscientificallyandpresentedthembothtothescientificcommunityandtothepopularcommunityandsociologicallyinthe1960sand1970s.IntheUnitedStates,behaviorismwasincrediblywellknownandsowasSkinner.Hewasthesortofpersonyouwouldseeontalkshows.Hisbookswerebestsellers.
Now,atthecoreofbehaviorismarethreeextremelyradicalandinterestingviews.Thefirstisastrongemphasisonlearning.Thestrongviewofbehaviorismiseverythingyouknow,everythingyouare,istheresultofexperience.There'snorealhumannature.Rather,peopleareinfinitelymalleable.There'sawonderfulquotefromJohnWatsonandinthisquoteJohnWatsonisparaphrasingafamousboastbytheJesuits.TheJesuitsusedtoclaim,"GivemeachilduntiltheageofsevenandI'llshowyoutheman,"thattheywouldtakeachildandturnhimintoanythingtheywanted.AndWatsonexpandedonthisboast,
Givemeadozenhealthyinfants,well-formedandmyownspecifiedworldtobringthemupandI'llguaranteetotakeanyoneatrandomandtrainthemtobecomeanytypeofspecialistImightselect--doctor,lawyer,artist,merchant,chief,andyes,evenbeggar-manandthief,regardlessofhistalents,penchants,tendencies,abilities,vocationsandraceofhisancestors.
Now,youcouldimagine--YoucouldseeinthisatremendousappealtothisviewbecauseWatsonhasanextremelyegalitarianviewinasense.Ifthere'snohumannature,thenthere'snosenseinwhichonegroupofhumansbydintoftheirraceortheirsexcouldbebetterthananothergroup.AndWatsonwasexplicit.Noneofthosefactsaboutpeoplewillevermakeanydifference.Whatmatterstowhatyouareiswhatyoulearnandhowyou'retreated.Andso,Watsonclaimedhecouldcreateanybodyinanywaysimplybytreatingtheminacertainfashion.
Asecondaspectofbehaviorismwasanti-mentalism.AndwhatImeanbythisisthebehavioristswereobsessedwiththeideaofdoingscienceandtheyfelt,largelyinreactiontoFreud,thatclaimsaboutinternalmentalstateslikedesires,wishes,goals,emotionsandsoon,areunscientific.Theseinvisible,vaguethingscanneverformthebasisofaseriousscience.Andso,thebehavioristmanifestowouldthenbetodevelopasciencewithoutanythingthat'sunobservableandinsteadusenotionslikestimulusandresponseandreinforcementandpunishmentandenvironmentthatrefertorealworldandtangibleevents.
Finally,behavioristsbelievedtherewerenointerestingdifferencesacrossspecies.Abehavioristmightadmitthatahumancandothingsthataratorpigeoncouldn'tbutabehavioristmightjustsay,"Look.Thosearejustgeneralassociativepowersthatdiffer"ortheymayevendenyit.Theymightsay,"Humansandratsaren'tdifferentatall.It'sjusthumanstendtoliveinaricherenvironmentthanrats."Fromthatstandpoint,fromthattheoreticalstandpoint,comesamethodologicalapproachwhichis,ifthey'reallthesamethenyoucouldstudyhumanlearningbystudyingnonhumananimals.Andthat'salotofwhattheydid.
Okay.I'mgoingtoframemyintroduction--mydiscussionofbehaviorsintermsofthethreemainlearningprinciplesthattheyarguecanexplainallofhumanmentallife,allofhumanbehavior.Andthen,Iwanttoturntoobjectionstobehaviorismbutthesethreeprinciplesarepowerfulandveryinteresting.
Thefirstishabituation.Thisistheverysimplestformoflearning.Andwhatthisisistechnicallydescribedasadeclineinthetendencytorespondtostimulithatarefamiliarduetorepeatedexposure."Hey!
"[shouting,thenpausing]"Hey!
"[shoutingagain]Thesuddennoisestartlesbutasit--asyouhearitasecondtimeitstartlesless.Thethirdtimeisjustmebeinggoofy.It'sjust--It's--Yougetusedtothings.Andthis,of
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