语言学课后答案4.docx

语言学课后答案4.docx

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语言学课后答案4

1.

syntax:

thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.

co-occurrence:

Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Forinstance,whatcanprecedeanoun（dog）isusuallythedeterminersandadjectives,andwhatcanfollowitwhenittakesthepositionofsubjectwillbepredicatorssuchasbark,bite,run,etc.Inshort,co-occurrenceisthesyntacticenvironmentinwhichaconstruction,withitsrelevantelements,canappeargrammaticallyandconventionally.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.

construction:

itreferstoanysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage,togetherwithwhateverislinguisticallyconventionalizedaboutitscontributiontothemeaningoruseconstructcontains.Itcanbefurtherdividedintotheexternalandinternalproperties.TakesentenceTheboykickedtheballasanexample,wewilldeterminetheexternalsyntaxasanindependentclause,whileNP（“theboy”）,VP（“kicked”）andNP（“theball”）willbeassignedrespectivelytothedifferentelementsinthisclause.

constituent:

Constituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:

forexample,inthesentenceTheboyatetheapple,S（A）,theboy（B）,atetheapple（C）,eachpartisaconstituent.Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B（theboy）andC（atetheapple）,arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA（“S”,hereasentence）,thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA.

endocentric:

Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCentreorHead.Inthephrasetwoprettygirls,girlsistheCentreorHeadofthisphraseorwordgroup.

exocentric:

Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable"Centre"or"Head"insidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate（verb+object）construction,andconnective（be+complement）construction.InthesentenceTheboysmiled,neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.

coordination:

AcommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherlanguagesisformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butoror.Thisphenomenonisknownascoordination.Intheconstructiontheladyorthetiger,bothNPstheladyandthetigerhaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.

subordination:

Subordinationreferstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.Inthephraseswimminginthelake,swimmingistheheadandinthelakearethewordsmodifyingthehead.

category:

Thetermcategoryinsomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:

thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,andsoon.

agreement:

Agreement（orconcord）maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallalsobecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategory（orcategories）.Forinstance,thesyntacticrelationshipbetweenthispenanditinthefollowingdialogue:

  --Whoseisthispen?

  --Oh,it’stheoneIlost.

embedding:

Embeddingreferstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinanotherclauseinsyntacticsubordination.E.g.,Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.

recursiveness:

itmainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithin（i.e.,bedominatedby）anotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,butitcanbeusedtoanymeanstoextendanyconstituent.Togetherwithopenness,recursivenessisthecoreofcreativityoflanguage.Forexample,“Imetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew”.

grammaticalsubject&logicalsubject:

Grammaticalandlogicalsubjectsaretwotermsaccountingforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice.TakethesentencesadogbitJohnandJohnwasbittenbyadogasexamples.Sincethecoreobjectnoun（Johninthiscase）sitsintheslotbeforetheverbinthepassive,itiscalledgrammaticalsubject,fortheoriginalobjectnounphraseoccupiesthegrammaticalspacebeforeaverb,thespacethatasubjectnormallyoccupies;thecoresubject（adog）,nowtheobjectofapreposition（byadog）,iscalledalogicalsubject,sincesemanticallythecoresubjectstilldoeswhatasubjectnormallydoes:

itperformsanaction.

cohesion:

Cohesionreferstorelationsofmeaningthatexistwithinthetext,andthatdefineitasatext.Thecohesivedevicesusuallyinclude:

conjunction,ellipsis,lexicalcollocation,lexicalrepetition,reference,substitution,andsoon.Inthefollowingexample,thecohesivedeviceis“Reference”,thatis,“it”refersbacktothedoor:

 Hecouldn'topenthedoor.Itwaslockedtight.

2.

（1）Theinstructortoldthestudentstostudy.[NP（det.+n.）+V+NP（det.+n.）+inf.]

（2）Thecustomerrequestedforacoldbeer.[NP（det+n.）+V+PP（prep.+det.+adj.+n.）]

（3）Thepilotlandedthejet.[NP（det+n）+V+NP（det+n.）]

（4）Thesedeadtreesmustberemoved.[NP（det+adj.+n.）+mv（modalverb）+be（auxiliaryverb）+PastParticiple]

（5）Thatglasssuddenlybroke.[NP（det+n）+adv.+V]

3.

（a）（（The）（boy））（（was）（crying））.

（b）（Shut）（（the）（door））.

（c）（（Open）（（the）（door）））（quickly）.

（d）（（The）（（（happy）（teacher））（（in）（（that）（class）））））（（was）（（beaming）（away）））.

（e）（He）（（（bought）（（an）（（old）（car））））（（with）（（his）（（first）（（pay）（cheque））））））.

4.

（a）Ducksquack.（non-headed,independentclause）

（b）Theladderintheshedislongenough.（non-headed,prepositionalphrase）

（c）Isawabridgedamagedbeyondrepair.（headed;headword—damaged;adjectivalgroup）

（d）Singinghymnsisforbiddeninsomecountries.（headed;headword—singing;gerundialphrase）

（e）Hishandsomefaceappearedinthemagazine.（headed;headword—face;nominalgroup）

（f）Aladyofgreatbeautycameout.（non-headed;prepositionalphrase）

（g）Heenjoysclimbinghighmountains.（headed;headword—climbing;gerundialphrase）

（h）Themannoddedpatiently.（non-headed;asentence）

（i）Amanrousedbytheinsultdrewhissword.（headed;headword—roused;adjectivalphrase）

5.

a.N  b.Y  c.Y  d.Y  e.Y  f.N  g.Y  h.N

6.

（a）ThecometthatDr.Okadadiscoveredappearseverytwentyyears.

（b）Everyonerespectedthequarterbackwhorefusedtogiveup.

（c）ThemostvaluableexperiencesthatIhadonmytriptoEuropeweresmallones.

（d）Childrenwhoseparentsabusealcoholwillprobablybecomeabusersofdrugsoralcohol.

（e）Manynationsarerestrictingemissionsofnoxiousgaseswhichthreatentheatmosphere.

7.

Inthischapter,severalwaystoextendsyntacticconstituentsarebroughtunderthecategoryofrecursiveness,includingcoordinationandsubordination,conjoiningandembedding,hypotacticandparatacticandsoon.Coordinationandconjoiningarethedifferentnamesforthesamelinguisticphenomenon,thatis,touseand,butorortojointogethersyntacticconstituentswiththesamefunction.Forinstance,thesentenceAmangotintothecarcouldbeextendedintoasentencelikethis"[NPAman,awoman,aboy,acarandadog]gotintothecar".Whilesubordinationandembeddingcanbeunderstoodastheextensionofanysyntacticconstituentbyinsertingoneormoresyntacticelementswithdifferentfunctionsintoanother.IsawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyearisanextendedsentencebychangingtheindependentclauseThemanhadvisitedyoulastyearintoadependentelement（herearelativeclause）.

However,hypotaxisandparataxisarethetwotraditionaltermsforthedescriptionofsyntacticrelationsbetweensentences.Intheexamplesbelow,theformerishypotactic,whilethelatterisparatactic:

Welivenearthesea.Soweenjoyahealthyclimate.

Hedictatedtheletter.Shewroteit.

8.

（a）Thebestthingwouldbetoleaveearly.（infinitivephrase）

（b）It'sgreatforamantobefree.（infinitivephrase）

（c）Havingfinishedtheirtask,theycametohelpus.（pastparticipialphrase）

（d）XiaoLibeingaway,XiaoWanghadtodothework.（absolutephrase）

（e）Filledwithshame,heleftthehouse.（pastparticipialphrase）

（f）Alloursavingsgone,westartedlookingforjobs.（absolutephrase）

（g）It'snousecryingoverspiltmilk.（gerundialphrase）

（h）Doyoumindmyopeningthewindow?

（gerundialphrase）

9.

Thegrammaticalcategory“subject”indifferentlanguagepossessesdifferentcharacteristics.InEnglish,“subj