语言学1.docx

语言学1.docx

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语言学1

Chapter1

1．Whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication

2.Designfeaturesoflanguage？

a）Arbitrariness:

Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.

b）Duality:

thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures.Suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization

c）Productivity/creativity:

Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness.Languagehasitspotentialtocreateendlesssentences.

d）Displacement:

Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofcommunication.

3.Functionsoflanguage

1）Informative:

Thespeakersuselanguagetotalkabouttheirthoughts,ideas,beliefsorwhattheybelieve,theysee,theyhear.

e.g.Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit.

2）Interpersonalfunction:

peopleuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinsociety.

e.g.Itincludesformsofaddress,speechfunction,modality,etc.

3）Performative:

Languageisusedto“dothings”,toperformactions.

4）Emotivefunction:

Itiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.

5）Phaticcommunion:

Thespeakerwilluseseeminglymeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.

6）Recreationalfunction:

Thelanguageisusedforthesheerjoy.

7）Metalingualfunction:

Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutlanguage.

Languageisself-reflexive.

E.g.paraphrase:

（orderchange,similarexpressions）

definition:

（/a:

/isavoweland/b/isaconsonant.）

4. Mainbranchesoflinguistics

1）Phonetics----speechsounds

Itstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howthespeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,etc.

2）Phonology---phoneme

Itstudiestherulesgoverningofthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Simplyputit,itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.

3）Morphology---morpheme

Itisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning---morphemesandword-formationprocess.

4）Syntax

Itstudiestherulesintheformation,organizationofasentence.Orspecifically,itstudiesthewordorderofasentence.

5）Semantics

Itconcernsthestudyofmeaninginalanguage.

6）Pragmatics

Itisthestudyofmeaninginacontext,inaparticularsituation.

5.Macrolinguistics:

Linguisticsisadiscipline.Ithasrelationshipswithotherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,computerscienceandsoon.

1）Psycholinguistics:

Itinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind.

2）Sociolinguistics:

Itconcernstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.

3）Anthropologicallinguistics:

Itusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.

6.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

1）Descriptivevs.prescriptive

Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Descriptivelinguisticsdescribesandanalyzesthefactsobserved.Prescriptivelinguisticstriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.

2）SynchronicandDiachronic

Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageatsomepointintime,itissynchronicstudy.

Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageasitexistsindifferenthistoricalperiods,itisdiachronicstudy.

3）Langueandparole

Langueistheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,includingrules,conventions;Itisstableandsystemic.

Paroleistheconcreteuseofrules.Paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints

4）Competenceandperformance

Competencereferstothelanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.

Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.

Chapter2

1.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.

ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.

AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.

PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.

2.Consonantsandvowels

Consonantsareproducedwithsomeformofobstructionoftheairpassage,withorwithoutthevibrationofthevocalcords.

Bycontrast,avowelisproducedwithoutanyobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,sothat‘airescapesinarelativelyunimpededwaythroughthemouthornose’voiced

Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.

Placeofarticulation

（1）.Bilabial（双唇音）:

[p],[b],[m],[w]

（2）.Labial-dental（唇齿音:

[f],[v]

（3）. Dental（齿音）:

[ð],[θ]

（4）. Alveolar（齿龈音）:

[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l]

（5）. Post-alveolar（后齿龈音）:

[ſ],[3]

（6）.Retroflex（卷舌音）:

[r]eg.Chinese

（7）.Palatal（硬腭音）:

[j]

（8）.Velar（软腭音）:

[k],[g],[η]

（9）.Uvular（小舌音）：

[r]eg.French

（10）. Pharyngeal（喉音）:

[h]eg.Arabic

（11）.Glottal（声门音）:

[h]

3.Whatisminimalpair?

twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace.

4.Allophones

[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.

complementarydistribution:

theyneveroccurinthesamecontext:

Phoneticsimilarity:

theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblence.

5.Assimilation:

Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.

6.Suprasegmentalsfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalsarestress,tone,andintonation.

7.Thesyllablestructure:

Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.

8.Tone:

languageslikeChineseareknownastonelanguages.

Chapter3

1.Morpheme（词素）:

thesmallestmeaningfulunitincompositionofwords.

Morphology（形态学）:

thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents---morphemes.

1.typesofmorphemes

1）freemorphemeandboundmorpheme（自由词素和粘附词素）

Freemorphemes---morphemeswhichmayoccuraloneormayconstitutewordsbythemselves,e.g.dog,nation,desk,close.

Boundmorphemes---morphemeswhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,e.g.dis-,un-,-ed,-ment.

2）root,affixandstem（词根、词缀和词干）

Root---thebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthepartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Allwordscontainaroot.

Affix---themorphemesthatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme（therootorstem）.Therearethreesubtypes:

Prefixes,Suffixes&Infixes.

Stem---anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Oritisthepartofwordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.

3）.inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）

Inflectionalaffix---affixeswhichoftenonlyaddagrammaticalmeaningtothestem.

Derivationalaffix---affixeswhichchangethelexicalmeaning.

•TwofieldsofMorphology:

Inflectionalmorphology（屈折形态学）:

thestudyofinflections.

•Derivationalmorphology（派生形态学）:

thestudyofword-formation.

2.whatisword

1）stability

2）relativeuninterruptbility

3）aminimumfreeform（Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction.）

3.classificationofwords

1）Variable&invariablewords

Variable:

wordswithorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms.Partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.

Invariable:

wordswithoutinflectiveendings.

e.g.since,when,seldom,through,etc.

2）GrammaticalwordsandLexicalwords

Grammatical/Functionwords:

wordswhichexpressgrammaticalmeaning;tolinkdifferentpartstogether.连，介，冠，代词

Lexical/Contentwords:

wordswhichhavelexicalmeaning,orwhichcarrythemaincontentofalanguage名，动词，形容词，副词

3）Closed-class&open-classwords

Closed-class:

whosemembershipisfixedorlimited,i.e.,newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.

Open-class:

whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,i.e.,newmemberscanbeadded,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs

4）Wordclass:

knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar,whichestablishesninewordclasses,suchasnoun,verb,adjectives,adverbs,pronoun,preposition,conjunction,interjectionandarticle.

Pro-form:

substitutesforotherterms.

●Pro-adjective:

Yourcarisred.Soishis.

●Pro-verb:

HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedoes.

●Pro-adverb:

HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.

●Pro-locative:

Hewentthere,underthetree.

4.LexicalChange

1）Invention/Coinage发明法

2）Blending混成法:

3）Back-formation逆构词法

4）Clipping/Abbreviations缩写词

5）Acronym缩略语

6）Analogicalcreation类推构词

7）Borrowing借词

5.Compoundreferstoawordthatiscomposedofmorethanonemorpheme,