语言学8.docx
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语言学8
Chapter8LanguageinUse
Teachingobjectives:
Enablethestudentstohaveabetterunderstandingofpragmaticsandpragmatictheories.
TeachingFocus:
Thedifferencebetweenpragmaticsandsemantics
1.Speechacttheory
2.Thecooperativeprincipleanditsfourmaxims
TeachingMethodsandStrategies:
Ss’spracticeandT’scomments;PBL;seminar
TeachingProcedures
1.SpeechActTheory
2.TheTheoryofConversatinalImplicature
3.Post-GriceanDevelopment
•（T）Thecooperativeprinciple,animportantpragmaticprincipleproposedbyGrice,aimstoexplainhowwemeanmorethanwesay.
•（T）Asentenceisagrammaticalunitandanutteranceisapragmaticnotion.
•（T）AccordingtoSearle‘sclassificationofspeechacts,request,order,suggestandadviseallbelongtothesameonegeneralclassbecausetheyareallintendedbythespeakertogetthehearertodosth.
Multiplechoice
1.Anillocutionaryactisidenticalwith__
•A.sentencemeaningb.thespeaker,sintention
•C.lgunderstandingd.thespeaker,scompetence
2.theindirectspeechactwasdevelopedby
•A.JohnAustinB.LevinsonC.JohnLyonsD.JohnSearle
Definition
•Pragmaticsisgenerallythestudyofnaturallanguageunderstanding,andspecificallythestudyofhowcontextinfluencestheinterpretationofmeanings.Inanotherworditisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweensymbolsandtheirinterpreters.
•In1937,theAmericanphilosopherCharlesWilliamMorrisintroducedtheword“Pragmatics”intoliterature.
•莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：
•句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
符号三分说
Syntactics:
theformalrelationofsignstooneanother.
Semantics:
therelationsofsignstotheobjectstowhichthesignsareapplicable.
Pragmatics:
therelationofsignstointerpreters.
Semantics&Pragmatics
•Bothareconcernedwithstudyofmeaning.
•没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究
•语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义
•语义学是对语言能力（competence）的研究
•语用学是对语言行为（performance）的研究
•语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actualrealizationChomsky
Semantics&Pragmatics
•Peterboughtacar.
•ItwasPeterwhoboughtacar.
•ItwasacarthatPeterbought.
•Whatpeterboughtwasacar.
•句法学：
说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果
•语义学：
这些句子都是同义的。
•语用学：
这些句子都是不同的。
恭喜你
•语音学家:
分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。
•句法学家:
指出这是一个无主语的祈使句，有一个动词加一个代词组成。
•语义学家:
这句话的意思：
向某个人表示祝贺。
•语用学家:
将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向“你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？
•Pragmaticsmayalsobedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinactualuse.
•Meaninginpragmaticsisdifferentfromthemeaningwestudiedinsemanticsmostlyinthesensethatpragmaticmeaningdependsmoreoncontext.
SentenceMeaningItistheabstractcontext-independententitycalledsemanticproposition.
UtteranceMeaningItiscontext-dependent.Itistheproductofsentencemeaningandcontext.Therefore,itisricherthanthemeaningofthesentence.
（C）____isthestudyoftherelationshipbetweensymbolsandtheirinterpreters.
A.SyntaxB.Semantics
C.PragmaticsD.Sociolinguistics
58.____isconcernedwiththestudyoftheactualuseoflanguageincommunication.
A.sociolinguisticsB.semantics
C.pragmaticsD.synchroniclinguistics
•Answer:
B
82.Oncethenotionof____wastakenintoconsideration,semanticsspilledintopragmatics.
A.meaningB.contextC.formD.content
•Answer:
B
Speechacttheory
•Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse.
•OriginatedwiththeOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin.
•HowtoDoThingswithWords（1962）《怎样用词做事》
•Performantive&Constative
•ThetheoryofIllocutionaryAct
Performative&Constative
•Iftheutteringofthesentencesisapartofthedoingofanaction,thesentencesarecalledperformatives.Andverbslikenamearecalledperformativeverbs.
•InamethisshiptheQueenElizabeth.
•Ipromisetofinishitintime.
•Iapologize.
•言有所为包括完成一个动作如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌或实施某一行为如许诺、警告、道歉、欢迎等。
•Incontrast,constativesaredescriptionsofwhatthespeakerisdoingatthemomentofspeaking.
•同济大学Illustratethedifferencebetweenconstativeandperformativeutterance.
•
（2）Searl对言外行为的分类
•1）阐述类（representatives），swear,state,assert,claim,guess,hypothesize.
•2）指令类（directives），beg,request,advise,invite,suggest,insist,order,demand.
•3）承诺类（commissives），promise,undertake,vow.
•4）表达类（expressives），apologize,congratulate,thank,sympathize,condole.
•5）宣告类（declarations）,name,declare,appoint.
•东南大学2002
•WhatarethefivegeneraltypesofillocutionaryspeechactsJohnSearlehasspecified?
Giveexamplestoeachofthem.
Felicityconditions合适条件
•Thereareconditionsforperformativestomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous.Austinsuggestedthefollowingconditions:
•A.（i）Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,
•（ii）Therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancemustbeappropriate.
•B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted（i）correctlyand（ii）completely.
•C.（i）Therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,
•（ii）mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.
•Example:
•thecaseofaship-launchingceremony;thecaseofbequeathingone’swatch;thecaseofbetting
•Featuresoftypicalperformatives:
•Usefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs
53.Thesentence“Iapologize!
”belongstothecategoryof_____accordingtothespeechacttheory.
A.expressiveB.performative
C.representativeD.constative
•Answer:
B
19.The_D___functionoflanguageisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.
A.performativeB.phaticC.recreationalD.emotive
81.Thefunctionofthesentence“Lovelyweather,isn’tit?
”is_____
A.informativeB.phaticC.performativeD.recreational
Answer:
B
FunctionsofLanguage
–informative（信息功能）
–interpersonalfunction（人际功能）
–Performative（施为功能，该概念来自于Austin&Searle的言语行为理论speechacttheory）。
–Emotivefunction（感情功能）
–Phaticcommunion（交互性功能：
如礼节性的交谈ritualexchanges,俚语slangs,jokes,行话jargons等。
通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况，如英国人谈论天气。
该术语来源于人类语言学家Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。
）
–Recreationalfunction（娱乐性功能，ababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting）
–Metalingualfunction（元语言功能，用语言来谈论语言）
atheoryoftheIllocutionaryact
•AnLocutionaryActmeansthatwhenwespeak,wemoveourvocalorgansandproduceanumberofsoundswithacertainmeaning.
•AnIllocutionaryActisusingasentencetoperformafunction.
•APerlocutionaryActistheresultoreffectsthatareproducedbymeaningsofsayingsomething.
100.JohnAustinproposed____inthelate1950s.
A.SpeechActTheoryB.7typesofmeaning
C.CooperativePrincipleD.Predicationanalysis
•Answer:
A
149.Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuseincalled____.
A.illocutionarytheoryB.SpeechActTheory
C.conversationalimplicatureD.theQandR-principle
•Answer:
B
60.____referstotheutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.
A.LocutionaryactB.illocutionaryact
C.perlocutionaryactD.speechact
Answer:
A
thetheoryofconversationalimplicature
•theCooperativePrinciple
•characteristicsofimplicature
Conversationalimplicature
•ProposedbyanotherOxfordphilosopherHerebrtPaulGrice.
•LogicandConversation《逻辑与形式》
•在我们所说的话和我们说话的用意之间常有一定的距离，这种话语的用意就是“会话含义”（Conversationalimplicature）
•A:
Canyoutellmethetime?
•B:
Well,themailhasalreadycome.
•A:
AreyougoingtoJohn’sbirthdayparty?
•B:
I’veheardMaryisgoing.
theCooperativePrinciple
•QuantityMaxim
•QualityMaxim
•RelationMaxim
•MannerMaxim
QuantityMaxim
Ømakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired（forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange）.
ØDonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.
•A:
WheredoesXlive?
•B:
Somewhereinthesuburbsofthecity.
•DearSir,
•Mr.X’scommandofEnglishisexcellentandhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular,yours,etc.
QualityMaxim:
•Trytomakeyourconversationonethatistrue.
•Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
•Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.
•Lifeisajourney.
•Lifeisaboxofchocolate.
•Heisafox.
•Hehasaheartofstone.
•RelationMaxim
✓Berelevant
•A:
Canyouanswerthetelephone?
•B:
I’minthebath.
•A:
Thehostessisanawfulbore,don’tthink?
B:
Therosesarelovely,aren’tthey?
•MannerMaxim
✓Beperspicuous
✓avoidobscurityofexpressions.
✓Avoidambiguity.
✓Bebrief.
✓Beorderly.
✓A:
Let’sgetthekidssomething.
✓B:
Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
✓MissXproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondcloselywiththescoreof“Home,SweetHome.”
1.Thereare____maximsunderthecooperativeprinciple.
A.2B.3C.4D.5
Answer:
C
2.Themaximof____requiresthataparticipation’scontributionberelevanttotheconversation.
A.quantityB.qualityC.mannerD.relation
•Answer:
D
3.Themaximofqualityrequires:
donotsaywhatyoubelievetobe____.
A.falseB.trueC.indirectD.insufficient
•Answer:
A
4.Griceintroducesfourcategoriesofmaxims,whichonemeansweshouldbeclearinourmeaning?
A.QuantityMaximB.MannerMaxim
C.QualityMaximD.RelationMaxim
•Answer:
B
Howtoexplainthefollowingexamplewiththecooperativeprinciple?
•A:
Canyouanswerthetelephone?
•B.iaminthebath.
•Considerthefollowingexchange:
•A:
Tomisanexcellentlinguist.Don′tyouthink?
•B:
Heisagoodcook.
•WHATmaximdoesBviolateintheexchange?
andwhatdoyouthinkwouldbethepossibleimplicatureofB?
•UsingwhatyouknowaboutGrice′scooperativeprincipleanditsfourmaximstoanalyzethefollowingshortexchange.（20points）
•
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