语言学导论要点 第14章.docx

语言学导论要点 第14章.docx

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语言学导论要点第14章

Chapter1

Introduction

1.1Linguistics

1.1.1Definitionoflinguistics

（1）Natureoflinguistics:

Linguistics（asabranchofscience）isthescientific（orsystematic）studyoflanguage.

（2）Subjectmatteroflinguistics:

Linguisticsstudiesallnaturallanguages,livingordead.

（3）Purposesoflinguistics:

Linguisticsaimstoanswertwoquestions,i.e.“Whatislanguage?

”“Howdoeslanguagework?

”（oritaimstodiscoverthenatureoflanguageandthewaysinwhichitworks）.

（4）Principleoflinguistics:

Linguisticsisasciencebecauseitisguidedbythreecanonsofscience:

（i）Exhaustiveness:

thoroughnessintheexaminationofmaterials;

（ii）Consistency:

nocontradictionbetweenpartsofstatements;

（iii）Economy:

preferenceforshorterstatementsoranalyses.

（5）Methodsoflinguistics:

Linguisticsemploysscientificmethodsofobservation,recordingandanalysis,etc.

1.1.2Linguisticsversustraditionalgrammar

（1）Natureoftraditionalgrammar:

Traditionalgrammaristhestudyoflanguageintheperiodbeforelinguisticscameintobeing.ItisbasedonearliergrammarsofLatinorGreekandemphasizessuchmattersascorrectness,linguisticpurism,literaryexcellence,theuseofLatinmodelsandthepriorityofthewrittenlanguage.

（2）Differenceoflinguisticsfromtraditionalgrammar:

（i）Linguisticsdescribeslanguageasitis（i.e.isdescriptive）whiletraditionalgrammarlaysdownrulesofcorrectness（i.e.isprescriptive）;

（ii）Linguisticsregardsspeechasprimarywhiletraditionalgrammarregardswritingasbasic;

（iii）LinguisticsdescribeseachlanguageonitsownmeritswhiletraditionalgrammarisbasedonLatinandtriestoimposetheLatingrammaronotherlanguages.

1.1.3UseofStudyingLinguistics

Linguisticsrevealsthenature,propertiesandlawsoflanguage.Asitbenefitsfrommanyrelateddisciplines,italsobenefitssuchareasaslanguagelearning,languageteaching,literarystudies,psychology,sociology,anthropology,andevenphilosophy.

1.1.4Scopeoflinguistics

（1）Microlinguisticsversusmacrolinguistics:

Microlinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinitselfwhilemacrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosomethingelse.（Roughlyparalleltotheabovedistinctionarethedistinctionsbetweenformalandfunctionallinguistics,andtheoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.）

（2）Branchesofmicrolinguistics:

Microlinguisticsasthestudyoflanguageinitselfincludessuchbranchesasphonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semanticsandpragmatics.

（i）Phonetics（isabranchoflinguisticswhich）studiesthecharacteristicsofthesoundsoflanguageintermsoftheirproduction,transmissionandperception;

（ii）Phonologystudiesthepatternsandfunctionsofsoundsofalanguage;

（iii）Morphologystudiesthestructureofwordsofalanguage;

（iv）Syntaxstudiesthestructureofsentencesofalanguage;

（v）Semanticsstudiesthemeaningoflanguageinitsformalaspects;

（vi）Pragmaticsstudiestheuseoflanguage（orlanguageinuse）.

（3）Branchesofmacrolinguistics:

Macrolinguisticsasthestudyoflanguageinrelationtootherthingsincludessuchbranchesasdiscourseanalysis,psycholinguistics,neurolinguistics,cognitivelinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,computationallinguistics,corpuslinguistics,mathematicallinguistics,appliedlinguistics,educationallinguistics,stylistics,forensiclinguistics,clinicallinguistics,translationstudies（translatology）,andmanyothers.

（i）Discourseanalysis（ortextlinguistics）studiesthestructureandfunctionofpiecesoflanguage（ortexts）incontext;

（ii）Psycholinguisticsstudiesthementalstructureandprocessesof（theacquisition,comprehensionandproductionof）language;

（iii）Neurolinguisticsstudiestheneurologicalstructureandprocessesof（theprocessingandrepresentationof）language（especiallythedisturbancesoflanguageprocessingcausedbythedamageofthebrain）;

（iv）Cognitivelinguisticsstudiesthecognitivestructureandprocessesoflanguage（especiallytheconceptualandexperientialbasisoflinguisticcategories）;

（v）Sociolinguisticsstudiesthesocialaspectsoflanguage（ortherelationsbetweenlanguageandsociety）;

（vi）Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestheanthropologicalaspectsoflanguage（especiallylanguageincross-culturalsettings）;

（vii）Computationallinguisticsstudieslanguagewiththehelpofcomputertechnology;

（viii）Corpuslinguisticsstudieslanguagethroughthebuildingandanalysisoflanguagecorpuses（oftenwiththehelpofcomputers）;

（ix）Mathematicallinguisticsstudiesthemathematicalpropertiesoflanguage（usuallythroughtheuseofmathematicalconcepts）;

（x）Appliedlinguisticsstudiesotherareasofexperiencethroughtheapplicationoflinguistics,especiallyforeignlanguagelearningandteaching;

（xi）Educationallinguisticsstudiestheuseoflanguageinmother-tongueeducation;

（xii）Stylisticsstudiesthedifferentvarietiesorstylesoflanguageinrelationtotheirfunctions,especiallytheliterarystyleinrelationtoliteraryeffects;

（xiii）Forensiclinguisticsstudieslinguisticevidencesforlegalpurposes;

（xiv）Clinicallinguisticsstudieslanguagedisorders;

（xv）Translationstudies（ortranslatology）studiescross-language,cross-culturalcommunicationwiththehelpoflinguistics（andotherdisciplines）.

1.2Language

1.2.1DefinitionofLanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

（i）Languageisasystembecauseitisorganizedandoperatesaccordingtorulesorprinciples;

（ii）Languageisarbitrarybecausethereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenitsformandmeaning;

（iii）Languageisvocalbecauseitsprimarymediumissound（orvoice）;

（iv）Languageisusedforhumancommunicationbecauseitishuman-specificandmainlyfunctionsasameansofcommunication.

1.2.2Originoflanguage

Linguists’hypothesesoftheoriginoflanguageinclude:

（i）Ding-DongTheory:

AccordingtoM.Müller,languagedevelopedfromprimitivemangivingvocalexpressiontoobjectsheencountered;

（ii）Sing-SongTheory:

AccordingtoOttoJespersen,languagedevelopedfromprimitiveritualsongsofpraise;

（iii）Pooh-PoohTheory:

AccordingtoL.H.Gray,languagerosefrominterjectionsorexclamationsexpressingthespeaker’semotions;

（iv）Yo-He-HoTheory:

AccordingtoL.Noiré,languageoriginatedfromthecriesutteredduringstrainofwork;

（v）Ta-TaTheory:

AccordingtoR.Paget,languagecamefromthecombinationofsomegesturesandtonguemovements.

（vi）Bow-WowTheory:

Languagearosefromimitationofanimalcriesorothernaturalsounds.

1.2.3Designfeaturesoflanguage

AccordingtoC.F.Hockett（1958）,languagehasthefollowingsevendesignfeaturesthatsetitapartfromanimalcrysystemsandmakeithuman-specific:

（i）Arbitrariness:

Nologicalconnectionbetweenthesoundandmeaningoflanguage;

（ii）Duality:

Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels—alevelofmeaninglesssoundswhichcombineintoasecondlevelofmeaningfullargerunits;

（iii）Productivityorcreativity:

Man’sabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesinalanguage,includingnewsentences;

（iv）Interchangeabilityorreciprocity:

Thefactthatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessagesandhisroleasspeakerandhearercanbeexchangedatease;

（v）Displacement:

Thefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingswhicharenothereandnow;

（vi）Specialization:

Thefactthatlanguageisaspecializedactivityandmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofspeaking.

（vii）Culturaltransmission:

Thefactthatlanguageisculturallyinsteadofgeneticallytransmitted.

1.2.4Functionsoflanguage

Languagecanbeusedtoperformthefollowingfunctions:

（i）Phaticfunction/communion:

Toestablishormaintainanatmosphereorsocialcontact;

（ii）Directivefunction:

Togetthehearertodosomething;

（iii）Informativefunction:

Togiveinformationortoreasonthingsout;

（iv）Interrogativefunction:

Toaskforinformation;

（v）Expressivefunction:

Toexpressthespeaker’sattitudesorfeelings;

（vi）Evocativefunction:

Tocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer;

（vii）Performativefunction:

Toperformactsortodothings.

1.3SomeMajorConceptsinLinguistics:

1.3.1Descriptiveandprescriptivegrammars

Descriptivegrammarattemptstodescribelanguageasitis;prescriptivegrammarprescribeshowlanguageshouldused.

1.3.2Synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics

Synchroniclinguisticsstudieslanguageatapointintime;diachroniclinguisticsstudieslanguagethroughtimeoracrosstime.

1.3.3Langueandparole

AccordingtoF.deSaussurewhomadethisdistinctionfromasociologicalviewoflanguage,languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;parolereferstotheparticularrealizationsoflangue.（Langueisthesocialconventionalsideoflanguage;paroleisindividualizedspeech.Langueisthecode;paroleisthemessage.）Langueandparoletogetherconstitutelanguage.

1.3.4Competenceandperformance

AccordingtoNoamChomskywhomadethisdistinctionfromapsychologicalviewoflanguage,competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations;performancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,i.e.theactualuseofthisknowledge.

1.3.5Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations

AccordingtoF.deSaussurewhomadethisdistinction,syntagmaticrelationreferstothehorizontal/positionalrelationshipbetweenlinguisticelements,whichformlinearsequences;paradigmaticrelationreferstothevertical/substitutionrelationshipbetweenforms,whichmightoccupythesamepar