信天翁的翻译.docx

信天翁的翻译.docx

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信天翁的翻译

Albatross

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Thisarticleisaboutthebirdfamily.Forotheruses,seeAlbatross（disambiguation）.

Short-tailedAlbatross（Phoebastriaalbatrus）

Scientificclassification

Kingdom界:

Animalia

Phylum:

门

Chordata脊索动物门

Class:

纲

Aves鸟纲

Subclass:

Neornithes

Infraclass:

Neoaves

Order:

目

Procellariiformes鹱形目

Family:

科

Diomedeidae信天翁科

G.R.Gray1840[1]

Genera

Diomedea

Thalassarche

Phoebastria

Phoebetria

Globalrange（Inblue）

Albatrosses,ofthebiologicalfamilyDiomedeidae,arelargeseabirdsalliedtotheprocellariids,storm-petrelsanddiving-petrelsintheorderProcellariiformes（thetubenoses）.TheyrangewidelyintheSouthernOceanandtheNorthPacific.大多数信天翁科的鸟生活在南半球深海区域的范围内，少数生活在北太平洋和赤道地带TheyareabsentfromtheNorthAtlantic,althoughfossilremainsshowtheyonceoccurredtheretooandoccasionalvagrantsarefound.

Albatrossesareamongthelargestofflyingbirds,andthegreatalbatrosses（genusDiomedea）havethelargestwingspansofanyextantbirds.Thealbatrossesareusuallyregardedasfallingintofourgenera,butthereisdisagreementoverthenumberofspecies.信天翁科的分属至今为止还没有定论。

信天翁科的鸟都比较大，拥有窄长的翅膀，它们的嘴比较长和有力，上喙末端形成一个向下的钩。

成鸟一般身长达1米多，双翅展开可达余3-4米，体重达8至9公斤，雄性信天翁一般比雌性体型大。

Albatrossesarehighlyefficientintheair,usingdynamicsoaringandslopesoaringtocovergreatdistanceswithlittleexertion.

信天翁科的鸟可以在海上长时间飞行，它们可以非常有效地利用空气动力的原理在海面上滑翔，有时数小时不必扇一下翅膀Theyfeedonsquid,fishandkrill它们最主要的食物是那里的鱼、墨鱼和虾byeitherscavenging食腐,surfaceseizingordiving.Albatrossesarecolonial,nestingforthemostpartonremoteoceanicislands,oftenwithseveralspeciesnestingtogether.Pairbondsbetweenmalesandfemalesformoverseveralyears,withtheuseof'ritualiseddances',andwilllastforthelifeofthepair.Abreedingseasoncantakeoverayearfromlayingtofledging,withasingleegglaidineachbreedingattempt.ALaysanalbatross,named"Wisdom"onMidwayIslandisrecognizedastheoldestwildbirdintheworld;shewasfirstbandedin1956byChandlerRobbins.[2]它们也以船丢弃的废物为食，因此它们有时跟船飞行。

信天翁科的鸟在繁殖期会上岸登岛，筑巢产卵，这时碰到人它们也不逃避。

信天翁性成熟较晚，到5—8岁时才开始繁殖。

雌鸟产一到两颗蛋。

信天翁是一夫一妻制，并轮流负责将蛋孵化，孵化期可达60天之久。

初期幼鸟从父母口中得到已消化了的脂肪及半消化了的食物，父母鸟需要反刍体内食物。

信天翁科的鸟可以活40—60年。

Ofthe21speciesofalbatrossesrecognisedbytheIUCN,19arethreatenedwithextinction.Numbersofalbatrosseshavedeclinedinthepastduetoharvestingforfeathers,buttodaythealbatrossesarethreatenedbyintroducedspeciessuchasratsandferalcatsthatattackeggs,chicksandnestingadults;bypollution;byaseriousdeclineinfishstocksinmanyregionslargelyduetooverfishing;andbylong-linefishing.Long-linefisheriesposethegreatestthreat,asfeedingbirdsareattractedtothebait,becomehookedonthelines,anddrown.Identifiedstakeholderssuchasgovernments,conservationorganisationsandpeopleinthefishingindustryareallworkingtowardreducingthisbycatch.

[edit]Biology

[edit]Taxonomyandevolution

Thealbatrossescomprisebetween13and24species（thenumberofspeciesisstillamatterofsomedebate,21beingthemostcommonlyacceptednumber）in4genera.Thefourgeneraarethegreatalbatrosses（Diomedea）,themollymawks（Thalassarche）,theNorthPacificalbatrosses（Phoebastria）,andthesootyalbatrossesorsooties（Phoebetria）.Ofthefourgenera,theNorthPacificalbatrossesareconsideredtobeasistertaxontothegreatalbatrosses,whilethesootyalbatrossesareconsideredclosertothemollymawks.[3]

Thetaxonomyofthealbatrossgrouphasbeenasourceofagreatdealofdebate.TheSibley-Ahlquisttaxonomyplacesseabirds,birdsofpreyandmanyothersinagreatlyenlargedorderCiconiiformes,whereastheornithologicalorganisationsinNorthAmerica,Europe,SouthAfrica,AustraliaandNewZealandretainthemoretraditionalorderProcellariiformes.ThealbatrossescanbeseparatedfromtheotherProcellariiformesbothgeneticallyandthroughmorphologicalcharacteristics,size,theirlegsandthearrangementoftheirnasaltubes（seeMorphologyandflight）.[3]

Withinthefamilytheassignmentofgenerahasbeendebatedforoverahundredyears.Originallyplacedintoasinglegenus,Diomedea,theywererearrangedbyReichenbachintofourdifferentgenerain1852,thenlumpedbacktogetherandsplitapartagainseveraltimes,acquiring12differentgenusnamesintotal（thoughnevermorethaneightatonetime）by1965（Diomedea,Phoebastria,Thalassarche,Phoebetria,Thalassageron,Diomedella,Nealbatrus,Rhothonia,Julietata,Galapagornis,Laysanornis,andPenthirenia）.[4]

By1965,inanattempttobringsomeorderbacktotheclassificationofalbatrosses,theywerelumpedintotwogenera,Phoebetria（thesootyalbatrosseswhichmostcloselyseemedtoresembletheprocellaridsandwereatthetimeconsidered"primitive"）andDiomedea（therest）.[5]Thoughtherewasacaseforthesimplificationofthefamily（particularlythenomenclature）,theclassificationwasbasedonthemorphologicalanalysisofElliottCouesin1866,andpaidlittleattentiontomorerecentstudiesandevenignoredsomeofCoues'ssuggestions.[4]

Phylogeneticrelationshipsofthe4albatrossgenera.BasedonNunnetal.1996.

MorerecentresearchbyGaryNunnoftheAmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory（1996）andotherresearchersaroundtheworldstudiedthemitochondrialDNAofall14acceptedspecies,findingthattherewerefour,nottwo,monophyleticgroupswithinthealbatrosses.[6]Theyproposedtheresurrectionoftwooftheoldgenusnames,PhoebastriafortheNorthPacificalbatrossesandThalassarcheforthemollymawks,withthegreatalbatrossesretainingDiomedeaandthesootyalbatrossesstayinginPhoebetria.BoththeBritishOrnithologists'UnionandtheSouthAfricanauthoritiessplitthealbatrossesintofourgeneraasNunnsuggested,andthechangehasbeenacceptedbythemajorityofresearchers.

Whilethereissomeagreementonthenumberofgenera,thereislessagreementonthenumberofspecies.Historically,upto80differenttaxahavebeendescribedbydifferentresearchers;mostofthesewereincorrectlyidentifiedjuvenilebirds.[7]

Basedontheworkonalbatrossgenera,RobertsonandNunnwentonin1998toproposearevisedtaxonomywith24differentspecies,[4]comparedtothe14thenaccepted.Thisinterimtaxonomyelevatedmanyestablishedsubspeciestofullspecies,butwascriticisedfornotusing,ineverycase,peerreviewedinformationtojustifythesplits.Sincethenfurtherstudieshaveinsomeinstancessupportedordisprovedthesplits;a2004paperanalysingthemitochondrialDNAandmicrosatellitesagreedwiththeconclusionthattheAntipodeanAlbatrossandtheTristanAlbatrossweredistinctfromtheWanderingAlbatross,perRobertsonandNunn,butfoundthatthesuggestedGibson'sAlbatross,Diomedeagibsoni,wasnotdistinctfromtheAntipodeanAlbatross.[8]Forthemostpart,aninterimtaxonomyof21speciesisacceptedbytheIUCNandmanyotherresearchers,thoughbynomeansall—in2004PenhallurickandWinkcalledforthenumberofspeciestobereducedto13（includingthelumpingoftheAmsterdamAlbatrosswiththeWanderingAlbatross）,[9]althoughthispaperwasitselfcontroversial.[7][10]Onallsides,thereisthewidespreadagreementontheneedforfurtherresearchtoclarifytheissue.

ThreebirdsonMidwayAtoll,1958

SibleyandAhlquist'smolecularstudyoftheevolutionofthebirdfamilieshasputtheradiationoftheProcellariiformesintheOligoceneperiod（35–30millionyearsago）,thoughthisgroupprobablyoriginatedearlier,withafossilsometimesattributedtotheorder,aseabirdknownasTytthostonyx,beingfoundinlateCretaceousrocks（70mya）.Themolecularevidencesuggeststhatthestorm-petrelswerethefirsttodivergefromtheancestralstock,andthealbatrossesnext,withtheprocellaridsanddivingpetrelsseparatinglater.TheearliestfossilalbatrosseswerefoundinEocenetoOligocenerocks,althoughsomeoftheseareonlytentativelyassignedtothefamilyandnoneappeartobeparticularlyclosetothelivingforms.TheyareMurunkus（MiddleEoceneofUzbekistan）,Manu（earlyOligoceneofNewZealand）,andanundescribedformfromtheLateOligoceneofSouthCarolina.SimilartothelastwasPlotornis,formerlyoftenconsideredapetrelbutnowacceptedasanalbatross.ItisfromtheMiddleMioceneofFrance,atimewhenthesplitbetweenthefourmoderngenerawasalreadyunderwayasevidencedbyPhoebastriacalifornicaandDiomedeamilleri,bothbeingmid-MiocenespeciesfromSharktoothHill,California.TheseshowthatthesplitbetweenthegreatalbatrossesandtheNorthPacificalbatrossesoccurredby15mya.Similarfossilfindsinthesouthernhemisphereputthesplitbetweenthesootiesandmollymawksat10mya.[3]Thefossilrecordofthealbatrossesinthenorthernhemisphereismorecompletethanthatofthesouthern,andmanyfossilformsofalbatrosshavebeenfoundintheNorthAtlantic,whichtodayhasnoalbatrosses.TheremainsofacolonyofShort-tailedAlbatrosseshavebeenuncoveredontheislandofBermuda,[11]andthemajorityoffossilalbatrossesfromtheNorthAtlantichavebeenofthegenusPhoebastria（theNorthPacificalbatrosses）;one,Phoebastriaanglica,hasbeenfoundindepositsinbothNorthCarolinaandEngland.Duetoconvergentevolutioninparticularofthelegandfootbones,remainsoftheprehistoricpseudotoothbirds（Pelagornithidae）maybemistakenforthoseofextinctalbatrosses;Manumaybesuchacase,andquitecertainlythesupposedgiantalbatrossfemurfromtheEarlyPleistocene[12]DainichiFormationatKakegawa（Japan）actuallyisfromoneofthelastpseudotoothbirds.Formoredataonfossilspeciesofthelivinga