英语专业语言学考试.docx
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英语专业语言学考试
Chapter1
1.Whatislanguage?
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication
2.Designfeaturesoflanguage?
a)Arbitrariness:
Itreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.
b)Duality:
thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures.Suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization
c)Productivity/creativity:
Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness.Languagehasitspotentialtocreateendlesssentences.
d)Displacement:
Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.
3.Functionsoflanguage
1)Informative:
Thespeakersuselanguagetotalkabouttheirthoughts,ideas,beliefsorwhattheybelieve,theysee,theyhear.
e.g.Waterboilsat212degreeFahrenheit.
2)Interpersonalfunction:
peopleuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinsociety.
e.g.Itincludesformsofaddress,speechfunction,modality,etc.
3)Performative:
Languageisusedto“dothings”,toperformactions.
4)Emotivefunction:
Itiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.
5)Phaticcommunion:
Thespeakerwilluseseeminglymeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.
6)Recreationalfunction:
Thelanguageisusedforthesheerjoy.
7)Metalingualfunction:
Languagecanbeusedtotalkaboutlanguage.
Languageisself-reflexive.
E.g.paraphrase:
(orderchange,similarexpressions)
definition:
(/a:
/isavoweland/b/isaconsonant.)
4. Mainbranchesoflinguistics
1)Phonetics----speechsounds
Itstudiesspeechsounds,includingtheproductionofspeech,thatis,howthespeechsoundsareactuallymade,transmittedandreceived,thesoundsofspeech,thedescriptionandclassificationofspeechsounds,etc.
2)Phonology---phoneme
Itstudiestherulesgoverningofthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Simplyputit,itstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.
3)Morphology---morpheme
Itisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning---morphemesandword-formationprocess.
4)Syntax
Itstudiestherulesintheformation,organizationofasentence.Orspecifically,itstudiesthewordorderofasentence.
5)Semantics
Itconcernsthestudyofmeaninginalanguage.
6)Pragmatics
Itisthestudyofmeaninginacontext,inaparticularsituation.
5.Macrolinguistics:
Linguisticsisadiscipline.Ithasrelationshipswithotherdisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,computerscienceandsoon.
1)Psycholinguistics:
Itinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind.
2)Sociolinguistics:
Itconcernstherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.
3)Anthropologicallinguistics:
Itusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.
6.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
1)Descriptivevs.prescriptive
Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Descriptivelinguisticsdescribesandanalyzesthefactsobserved.Prescriptivelinguisticstriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.
2)SynchronicandDiachronic
Asynchronicdescriptiontakesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageatsomepointintime,itissynchronicstudy.
Diachroniclinguisticsisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.Thatis,ifwestudylanguageasitexistsindifferenthistoricalperiods,itisdiachronicstudy.
3)Langueandparole
Langueistheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,includingrules,conventions;Itisstableandsystemic.
Paroleistheconcreteuseofrules.Paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints
4)Competenceandperformance
Competencereferstothelanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.
Performancereferstotheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.
Chapter2
1.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.
ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.
AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.
PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.
2.Consonantsandvowels
Consonantsareproducedwithsomeformofobstructionoftheairpassage,withorwithoutthevibrationofthevocalcords.
Avowelisproducedwithoutanyobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,
Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesintheobstructionofairstream.
Placeofarticulation
(1).Bilabial(双唇音):
[p],[b],[m],[w]
(2).Labial-dental(唇齿音:
[f],[v]
(3). Dental(齿音):
[ð],[θ](4). Alveolar(齿龈音):
[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l]
(5). Post-alveolar(后齿龈音):
[ſ],[3]
(7).Palatal(硬腭音):
[j]
(8).Velar(软腭音):
[k],[g],[η]
(11).Glottal(声门音):
[h]
3.Whatisminimalpair?
twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplace.
4.Allophones
[p,ph]aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.
complementarydistribution:
theyneveroccurinthesamecontext:
Phoneticsimilarity:
theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.
5.Assimilation:
Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.
6.Suprasegmentalsfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalsarestress,tone,andintonation.
7.Thesyllablestructure:
Allsyllablesmusthaveanucleusbutallsyllablescontainanonsetandacoda.Asyllablethathasnocodaiscalledanopensyllablewhileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.
8.Tone:
languageslikeChineseareknownastonelanguages.
Chapter3
1.Morpheme(词素):
thesmallestmeaningfulunitincompositionofwords.
Morphology:
thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents---morphemes.
1.typesofmorphemes
1)freemorphemeandboundmorpheme(自由词素和粘附词素)
Freemorphemes---morphemeswhichmayoccuraloneormayconstitutewordsbythemselves,e.g.dog,nation,desk,close.
Boundmorphemes---morphemeswhichcannotoccuraloneandmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme,e.g.dis-,un-,-ed,-ment.
2)root,affixandstem(词根、词缀和词干)
Root---thebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthepartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Allwordscontainaroot.
Affix---themorphemesthatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Therearethreesubtypes:
Prefixes,Suffixes&Infixes.
Stem---anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Oritisthepartofwordformwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved.
3).inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)
Inflectionalaffix---affixeswhichoftenonlyaddagrammaticalmeaningtothestem.
Derivationalaffix---affixeswhichchangethelexicalmeaning.
•TwofieldsofMorphology:
Inflectionalmorphology-thestudyofinflections.
•Derivationalmorphology(派生形态学):
thestudyofword-formation.
2.whatisword
1)stability
2)relativeuninterruptbility
3)aminimumfreeform(Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensound,meaningandsyntacticfunction.)
3.classificationofwords
1)Variable&invariablewords
Variable:
wordswithorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms.Partofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.
Invariable:
wordswithoutinflectiveendings.
e.g.since,when,seldom,through,etc.
2)GrammaticalwordsandLexicalwords
Grammatical/Functionwords:
wordswhichexpressgrammaticalmeaning;tolinkdifferentpartstogether.
Lexical/Contentwords:
wordswhichhavelexicalmeaning,orwhichcarrythemaincontentofalanguage
3)Closed-class&open-classwords
Closed-class:
whosemembershipisfixedorlimited,i.e.,newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,suchaspronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.
Open-class:
whosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,i.e.,newmemberscanbeadded,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs
4)Wordclass:
knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar,whichestablishesninewordclasses,suchasnoun,verb,adjectives,adverbs,pronoun,preposition,conjunction,interjectionandarticle.
Pro-form:
substitutesforotherterms.
●Pro-adjective:
Yourcarisred.Soishis.
●Pro-verb:
HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedoes.
●Pro-adverb:
HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.
●Pro-locative:
Hewentthere,underthetree.
4.LexicalChange
1)Invention/Coinage发明法
2)Blending混成法:
3)Back-formation逆构词法
4)Clipping/Abbreviations缩写词
5)Acronym缩略语
6)Analogicalcreation类推构词
7)Borrowing借词
5.Compoundreferstoawordthatiscomposedofmorethanonemorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.
Derivationshowsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.Newderivationalwordsarecreatedbyattachingprefixesorsuffixestoalreadyexistingwords.
Chapter4