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sphysiologicalstatusasmaleorfemale

Genderidentity:

acontinuousandpersistentsenseofoneselfasamaleorafemale

Genderroleorsexrole:

thebehaviours,attitudes,values,beliefsandsoonthataparticularculturalgroupconsidersappropriateformalesandfemalesonthebasisoftheirbiologicalsex

Genderroleidentity:

one'

sunderstandingandacceptanceofgenderroles

Genderorsexrolebehaviour:

whatpeople'

sbehavioursareactuallylike

Genderorsexrolestereotype:

thesociallydeterminedmodelwhichcontainstheculturalbeliefsaboutwhatthegenderrolesshouldbe

2.Contraception—familyplanning—birthcontrol

Controllingtheintroductionbybirthofanewmemberintoafamilyandintoacommunityinwhichthatfamilylives,isanemotionalandcontroversialissueinmanysocieties.Ontheonehand,thebirthofachildmayrepresentthejoyofanewmembertocarryonafamily’stradition,anation’smission,orareligion’smessage.Ontheotherhand,thebirthofachildmayrepresentonemoremouthtofeedandonemorebodytoclothefromanalreadylimitedsupply.Sofamilyplanning—birthcontrol—permitsschedulingnewmemberstoarriveatoptimumtimesandunderoptimumconditions.Reliablemechanicalandchemicalmethodsforpreventingconceptionhavebecomewidelyavailable.Witheffectivebirth-controldevices,medicinesandmethodsavailable,thechancesofbecomingpregnantaccidentallyhavebeenreduced,andthepossibleharmdonetowomen’shealthwasgreatlydiminished.

3.Bottle-feeding

Ifonewantstoknowsomethingaboutbottle-feeding,itisnecessarytotalkaboutbreast-feedingonthefirstplace.Breast-feedingwasthenormalsourceofnutritionforbabiesuntiltheIndustrialRevolution,whenwomenlefttheirhomestoworkinfactories,sparkinganeedforanalternativemethod.Thebabybottlewasgenerallyavailablebytheendof19thcentury,butwaswidelyusedonlybythepooruntilWorldWarII,whenitbecamefashionableamongthemiddleclass.Acontroversyaboutwhichmethod—bottleorbreast—waspreferablecontinuedfromthe1940suntilthebeginningofthe1980s,whentheAmericanAcademyofPediatricscameoutstronglyinfavorofbreast-feeding.Fordecades,manyphysicianswhobelievedbreast-feedingbenefitedthebabyhadnoturgedthemethod’suse.Theyfeltthemethodpresentedthenewmotherwithtoomanydifficulties.Thegrowthofthenaturalchildbirthmovementamongwomenself-educatedaboutbirthissues,combinedwithresearchintothevaluesforthebabyofbreastmilk,ledtoashiftamongmothersandprofessionalsinfavorofbreast-feeding.Accordingtostatistics,asmanyas95percentofthewomenwhogivebirthispotentiallyabletobreast-feed.Thefactthatmanydonotisrelatedtotheirownlevelofeducation,tolackofencouragementbyhealthprofessionals,andtopersistentmythsaboutbreast-feeding.Todaywomenwithhigherlevelsofeducationaremorelikelytochoosebreast-feeding.Inhospitalswherestaffsupportbreast-feeding,asmanyas80percentofthenewmothersarelikelytobreast-feed.InChina,manymajorhospitalshavelaunchedadriveforbreast-feeding,theinfluencesofbreast-feedingeducationwidespreadandfar-reaching.Despitetheefforts,manyworkingwomenarestillforcedtochoosebottle-feeding,whichmaybethereflectionoftheirdilemma.

4.Daycare

Theoldestday-carecenterinNorthAmerica,theLeilaDayNursery,startedin1878inNewHaven,Connecticut.InLowell,Massachusetts—thesiteofthesecond-oldestdaynursery,foundedin1885.Nurseriesflourishedinthelastquarterofthe19thcenturyinresponsetonewemploymentopportunitiesbroughtaboutbyindustrialinventions.Generally,thenurseriesbeganinmillorfactorycities.ThenurseryfounderstendedtobewealthyandinfluentialmenandwomenmotivatedbyVictorianinterestincharityandgoodworks.Asideforminformalarrangementsmadewithfriends,relatives,orneighborstocareforachild,childdaycarecomesintwoforms:

center-basedchildcareandfamilydaycare.Center-basedchildcarereferstoday-carefacilities,nurseryschools,etc.Familydaycare,bycontrast,isinahomesetting,withonetosixchildrenunderthecareofa“provider.”IntheUnitedStates,womenwithpreschoolchildrenarethefastest-growingsegmentofthelaborforce.Althoughmanywomenmayenjoytheirjobs,themostmajoritywithsmallchildrenworkbecausetheirincomeisneededtosupporttheirfamilies.Someexpertspredictthatby2003,75percentmotherswithyoungchildrenwillworkoutsidethehome.Recognizingthatallayingtheiremployee’sfearsabouttheirchildrenenhancedworkerproductivityandmadethecompanyamoredesirableplacetowork,manycompanieswereinvolvedinsomeformofdaycarearrangements.Somechild-careexpertspointoutthatdaycareisgoodforchildrenifthequalityoftheday-carestaffisgood.Mostparentsarepayingasmuchastheycanaffordfordaycare.ForU.S.workingfamiliesinthelastquarterofthe20thcentury,childcarehasbecometheirfourthlargestexpenditureafterfood,housing,andtaxes.NearlyhalfofallAmericanfamiliesrelyoncarepurchasedincenter-basedchildcareorinfamilyday-carehomes.Familieswithtwochildrenmaybepayingasmuchas$10,000peryear.

Introduction

ManyEnglishlearnersinChinamayhavedifficultiesdistinguishing“sex”from“gender.”So,tointroducethetopic,abasicdefinition,ifitcanberegardedasadefinition,wasgivenattheverybeginningofthetext.Peopletendtothinkthatgenderrolesarenaturalandstereotyped（para.1）.Differentpeoplecanplaydifferentpartsinacertainsocialgroup.Therolesmaybeassignedtothemonthebasisoftheirsex,theirpositioninthefamily,theireconomicandsocialstatus,ortheirage.Theauthorapproachesgenderrolesthroughacross-culturalandcomparativeanalysisbyprovidingacasestudybyMead（para.2）andemphasizesherconclusionthatgenderrolesareculturallypatterned（para.3）.Besides,therearemanyimportantsocialinfluencesthathelpshapeourgenderidentities.AccordingtoD.KimOpenshawfromtheDepartmentofFamilyandHumanDevelopment,theyareparentsandpeers,media（genderandthebodyinmassmedia,genderandageinthemedia）,ethnicity,theschoolandreligion,amongwhichinfluencesfromtheschoolandthefamilyaregivengreateremphasisinthetext（para.4,5,6and7）.Inthepast,onlyexceptionalwomen,suchasformerslaveHarrietTubman,whofoughtwithNortherntroopsandledmanyslavestofreedomduringtheAmericanCivilWar,brokeawayfromtraditionalwomen’sroles.Despitemanyefforts,evenuntiltodaytheunfavorablesituationforwomenisstilltoohardtochangebecauseofmanybiologicalorsocialorculturalreasons.Andmoreimportantly,whatweneedtodoisnottothinkofsomewaystochangebuttounderstandhoworwhyitissopatterned（para.8,9）.

LanguagePoints

1.biological（para.1）:

connectedwithbiology;

of,relatingto,causedby,oraffectinglifeorlivingorganisms;

relatedbybloodratherthanbyadoption

e.g.——Thebiologicalcycleofaplantisaffectedbylightandheat.

——Yourbiologicalclockisyourbody’snaturalhabitofsleeping,eating,growing,etc.

——Anadoptedchildmaywanttofindoutaboutitsbiologicalparents.

2.gender（para.1）:

sexualidentity,especiallyinrelationtosocietyorculture;

thefactofbeingmaleorfemale

e.g.——Discriminationongroundsofrace,gender,ageordisabilityisforbidden.

——Ithinksbothgendersareequallycapableoflookingafterchildren.

3.masculine（para.1）:

oforrelatingtomenorboys;

havingthequalitiesorappearancetraditionallythoughttobetypicalofmen

e.g.——Theoperasingerhasadeep,booming,masculinevoice.

——Itwasamovielikelytoappealtoamasculineaudience.

4.feminine（para.1）:

oforrelatingtowomenorgirls;

havingthequalitiesorappearancetraditionallythoughttobetypicalofwomen

e.g.——Societyhasn’tregardedscienceandengineeringasfeminineoccupations.

——Peoplewouldbemuchbetterbalancedifwecouldbringoutthemasculinesideof

womenandthefemininesideofmen.

5.initiate（para.1）:

setgoingbytakingthefirststep;

causetobegin;

put（ascheme,etc）intooperation

e.g.——Ourchurchinitiatedaprojecttosendreliefaidoverseas.

——Thisinitiatedafurtherreorganizationofthecompany.

6.altruistic（para.1）:

unselfish;

willingtodothingswhichbenefitotherpeople,evenifitresultsindisadvantage

e.g.——Idoubtwhetherhermotivesfordonatingthemoneyarealtruistic—she’sprobably

lookingforpublicity.

——HewasnomorealtruisticthantheotherSenators.

7.associatesb/sthwith（para.1）:

makeaconnectioninone’smindbetweenonethingorpersonandanother

e.g.——WenaturallyassociatethenameofDarwinwiththedoctrineofevolution.

——I’veneverassociatedyouwiththisplace.

——PeopleusuallyassociateJapanwithhightechconsumerproducts.

8.distort（para.1）:

giveafalseormisleadingaccountof;

misrepresent

e.g.——Thejournalistwas