新托福口语Task 4课文节选阅读练习题Word文档下载推荐.docx

新托福口语Task 4课文节选阅读练习题Word文档下载推荐.docx

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Groupthinkhappensmostoftenwhenthegroupisalreadycohesive,isisolatedfromconflictingopinionsandwheretheleaderisopenanddirective.Groupmemberssometimesfallintoastyleofthinkingwherethemaintenanceofthegroup’scohesionandtogethernessbecomesall-important.Resultingdecisionsareoftenbasedonincompleteinformationandfailtoconsiderallavailableplansofactionandrisks.Comparedtothedecisionsthatcouldhavebeenreachedusingafair,open,andrationaldecision-makingprocess,decisionsmadebygroupsengagedingroupthinkareverybad.

3.Self-FulfillingProphecy

Accordingtotheself-fulfillingprophecy,ifwemakeapredictionofouractivity,wetendtochangeouractionsandmakeourpredictiontrue.Forexample,Ifapersonthinkswearecleverorstupidorwhatever,theywilltreatusthatway.Ifwearetreatedasifweareclever,stupidorwhatever,wewillact,andevenbecome,thisway.So,tomakeapersonactinacertainway,allwehavetodoisbelievethiswhenweinteractwiththem.

4.FirstImpression

Makingagoodfirstimpressionisimportantforbuildingrelationshipswithotherpeople.We'

veallmetpeoplethatweinstantly"

like"

andwanttogettoknowmoreordobusinesswith.Inbusiness,apositivefirstimpressioniscrucialforcreatingprofitable,sustainable,long-termpartnershipstohelpbuildthebusinessandkeepitthriving.Firstimpressionscanlastforever.Itisimportanttomaketherightimpression-notthewrongone-fromtheveryfirstday.Noonewantstolooksillyordothewrongthingatanewjob.

5.ObservationalLearning

Learningisacombinationofwatching,thinkingandtrying.Bythetheoryofobservationallearning,afterwatchingthebehaviorofotherpeople（amodel）,anobserver'

sbehaviorchanges.Anobserver'

sbehaviorcanbeaffectedbythepositiveornegativeconsequencesofamodel'

sbehavior.Whenthemodel'

sbehaviorisrewarded,theobserverismorelikelytocopythemodel'

sbehaviorispunished,theobserverislesslikelytoimitatethesamebehavior.

6.TokenRewardSystem

Thetokenrewardsystemisaskillthroughwhichateacherorparentcaneffectivelyincreasegoodbehaviorandteachthechildoryoungpersontodelaytheirstateofbeingsatisfied.Itisimportantforateacherorparenttocreatehisorherowntokensratherthanjustusingpocketmoneyforthem,becausethechildoryoungpersoncanreceiveatokenwhichtheycollecttowardsameaningfulreward. 

Anytokenrewardsystemshouldbestartedinapositiveway.

7.State-dependentMemory

State-dependentmemoryreferstothephenomenonthatifpeopleremembersomeinformationinasituationor"

state"

theytendtorecallinformationbetterinthesamesituationor"

later.Oneofthestatesisenvironmentalcontext,suggeststhatmemorycanbeaffectedbyenvironmentinfluences.Apersonmemorizesinformationinoneroomcaneasilyrecallmorewhentestedinthesameorsimilarroomthaninanewroom.Otherenvironmentalinfluencesmayincludethetimeofdayandthepeoplewhoarepresent.

8.Buyer'

sRemorse

Buyer'

sremorseisanemotionalstate.Afteracustomerbuyinganexpensiveitemssuchaselectronics,automobilesandhouses,thiscustomerfeelsregret,becausetheybelievethattheiractionswerewrong.Asasalesperson,youneedtotakesomepositivestepstoovercomethebuyer'

sremorsebeforetheremorsefinallyovercomesyourcustomers.Toremovebuyer'

sremorse,youcangiveyourcustomersaphonecallorsendthemanimmediatee-mailreassuringthemthatnotonlyhavetheyboughtthebestproductorservice,butthattheywillalsoreceivethebestafter-salesserviceatanytimetheyneed.

9.AffiliationinAdvertisementCompanies

Affiliationreferstohavingacloserelationshipwithonepersonoragroup.Thisconceptclaimsthatapersonwantstohavegoodandstablerelationshipwithotherpeopleandgroups;

asaresult,manyadvertisementcompaniesusethismethodtotheirownbenefit.Therearetwowaysthattheaffiliationmethodisusedincompanies:

showingagoodpersonalandsocialrelationshipbetweentheconsumerandtheproduct,andshowingnegativeconsequencesofwhatwouldoccurinthesocietywhenpeopleuseproductsotherthanthecompanies’own.

10.Flow

Whenapersonisdoingonething,thispersonwillbetotallyimmersedinwhatheorsheisdoing.Thismentalstateiscalled“flow”.Generally,whataimmersedpersondoesusuallyshareafewcommoncharacteristics:

clearandlimitedgoals,highdegreeofconcentration,lossofthefeelingofself-consciousness,distortedsenseoftime,directandimmediatefeedback,verystongabilitytodealwithachallenge,senseofcontrol,andintrinsicreward.Thepersonwhoisinaflowstateishappyandgood,insteadofsadandterrible.

11.Short-termMemory

Short-termmemoryispartofthememorystoragesystem.Short-termmemorycanstoreasmallamountofinformationforabouttwentyseconds,ashortperiod.Short-termmemorycanbeaffectednegativelybytwofactors.Thefirstfactoristime.Inshort-termmemory,informationcandecayfromtheshort-termmemoryveryrapidlyunlessitiscontinuallyrehearsed.ThesecondfacorisinterferencefromotherItems.Short-termmemoryisveryeasytobeaffectedbyinterruptionorinterference.

12.SunkCosts

Ineconomicsandinbusinessdecision-making,sunkcostsareunrecoverableinvestmentcoststhathavealreadybeeninvestedbeforeacertainactivitytakesplace,nomattertheresultoftheactivitywillbe.Forexample,apersonmayorderacocktaildressthroughonlineshoppinganditisanon-refundablepurchase.Thepriceofthisdressbecomesasunkcostbecauseevenifthatpersonchangeshermindandwantstobuyadressshirt,there’snowayofgettingthemoneyback.

13.Ecosystem

Everythinginthenaturalworldisconnected.Anecosystemisanaturalcommunity,whichincludeslivingorganismssuchasallplants,animalsandmicro-organismsandphysicalsurroundingssuchastheair,water,andthesoil.Allthepartsworktogethertomakeabalancedsystembyinteractingandinterdependentrelationships.Iftheecosystemisharmedbyitssurroundingsorhumanactivity,“resilience”willallowtheecosystemtoreturntoitsoriginalsituation.

14.CyclicPopulationChange

Anecosystemisanaturalcommunity,whichincludeslivingorganismssuchasallplants,animalsandmicro-organismsandphysicalsurroundingssuchastheair,water,andthesoil.Oneaspectofecosystems,cyclicpopulationchange,referstospecieschangingtheirsizeoftheirpopulationcyclically.Populationschangeovertimeduetomanydifferentcircumstancessuchastheirsizeandclimaticchange.However,asthesecircumstancesrepeat,thepopulationsofthesespeciesreturntotheiroriginalstate.

15.TheParadoxofChoice

Forbuyers,themorechoicemightnotbebetter.Bytheprincipleofparadoxofchoice,eventhoughwithlotsofoptionspeoplemaygetabetterchoice,toomuchchoiceisnotnecessarilyagoodthing. 

Therearesomenegativeeffectsbroughtbyit.Toomuchchoiceraisesexpectationsandmakespeoplemorelikelytoputofftheirdecisions,blamethemselvesmoreoftenforchoosingtheperfectoption.Theyendupfeelinganxiousanddissatisfiedwiththeoutcome. 

16.Dormancy

Understressfulenvironmentalconditions,often,asinwinter,whenthefood 

andwaterisscared,organismsusedormancytoavoidharshenvironmentalconditions.Dormancyisaperiodinanorganism'

slifecyclewhendevelopmentistemporarilysuspended.Thisminimizesmetabolicactivityhelpsanorganismtoconservetheamountofenergyavailabletoitandmakesfewdemandsonitsenvironment.Periodsofdormancyvaryinlengthandindegreeofmetabolicreduction.Theremightbeaslightlylowermetabolismduringtheperiodic,short-durationdormancyofdeepsleep.Also,theremightbeaextrememetabolismreductionsforanverylongperiod.

17.RewardExtinctionEffect

Behaviorcanbeencouragedbyrewards.Tostopaperson’sproblembehavior,anotherpersonmaygivewhatthatpersonwants.However,intentionallyornot,thisisarewardforthatpersonandhewillcontinuedoingthatproblemthinginthefuture.“rewardextinctioneffects”meansthatoncethereisnolongeranyrewardfortheproblembehavior,theproblembehavior“disappears”.So,wecanreducetheoccurrencesoftheproblembehaviorbystoppingprovidingrewardafterthebehavior.

18.AttributionTheory

Attributiontheoryarguesthatallthepeoplehaveadesiretofindoutthereasonsforbothourbehaviorandotherpeople’sbehavior.Whenanotherpersonhasmadeamistake,wewilloftenattributecausestothatperson’sinternalpersonalityfactors.Whenwehavemadeamistake,wewillmorelikelyattributingcausestosituationalfactorsratherthanblamingourselves.Andviceversa.Wewillattributeoursuccessestoourinternalpersonalityfactorsandourrivals’successestoexternal‘luck’.

19.FramingEffect

Framingeffectcaninfluencepeople’sdecision-making.Aframingeffectoccurswhendifferent,butlogicallyequalwordscauseindividualstochangetheirdecisions.Forexample,aproblemcanbepresent