世界文明史06pptWord文档下载推荐.docx

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Third-centuryRomanscombinedelementsofpaganismwithChristianityasaristocraticfamiliespreservedancientculturaltraditions.Nevertheless,adramaticculturalchangewastakingplaceinthefaceofbarbarianinvasions.

II.THECRISISOFTHETHIRDCENTURY

TheRomanEmpireexperiencedseriousdomesticandforeignthreatstoitsexistenceduringthethirdcentury.Anover–extensionofimperialboundaries,anarchaiceconomicsystem,ashortageofreadycash,inflation,theuncertaintyofimperialsuccession,andtheinefficientcollectionoftaxesworsenedimperialproblems.ThefateofRomewasincreasinglybasedonmilitarysuccessandthepersonalpresenceoftheemperor.

A.EnrichtheArmyandScorntheRest

Militarydefeatsencouragedsoldierstoelevatetheirowncommandersasemperor,beginningwithSeptimiusSeverus.Financedbytheconfiscationofsenatorialwealthandadevaluedcurrency,thereformsofthesemilitaryemperorsentailedsubstantialincreasesinsoldiers'

pay,agreatergovernmentalroleforsoldiers,andarapidexpansionofthearmy.

1.TheRiseoftheMilitary.Increasedpayenabledsoldierstoimprovetheirlivingconditionsandtoclimbthesocialladder.Frontiersettlementsalsoprosperedbecauseofimperiallargesse.

2.EconomicDisaster.Soldiers’insatiabledemandsforhigherpayledtomassivecurrencydevaluationandtheninflation.Economicandpoliticalstabilityspreadassoldierssupportedandthenoverthrewasuccessionofemperors.

3.ExternalThreats.TheempirefacedincreasedattacksbyBerbers,Persians,andGermanictribesliketheAlemanniandFranks.

B.AnEmpireontheDefensive

Barbarianinvasionsshowtheweaknessofthecentralimperialadministration.Inthepowervacuum,provincialaristocratsoftensupportedseparatistmovementslikethatofPostumus.

1.TaxBurdens.Sharpsocialdivisionsfollowedthegrowingpoliticalchaosasthesenators,urbangentry,andmilitarywhoconstitutedthehonestioresevadedthegrowingburdenoftaxation,whichfellincreasinglyontherestofthepopulation,orhumiliores.

2.Banditry.Hightaxesdrovemanyintobanditry,notonlyontheperipheryoftheempirebutthroughouttheempire.ThegovernmentbrutallysuppressedresistancemovementsorBacaudae.Nevertheless,BullatheLuckywaspopularforhiseffortstohelpthepoor.Anotherbandit,Maximinus,actuallybecameemperorin235.

C.TheBarbarianMenace

Nolongerpeacefulbandsoffarmers,Germanicbarbariansorganizedintopowerfulmilitarytribalconfederationsandlaunchednumerousattacksupontheempire.

1.GermanicSociety.Livinginpatriarchalhouseholdslooselyorganizedintoclans,Germanbarbariansstructuredtheirsocialrelationsaroundregularindividualandgroupwarfare.Onekeyelementofpersonalconflictwasthefeud,eachactofwhichrequiredretribution.

2.FeudingandPeacemaking.Triballeaderswouldlaterencouragethevoluntarycashpayment,orwergeld,inlieuofbloodvengeance.Germantribesalsoencouragedunitythroughcommoncults,myths,andrituals,especiallydrinkingbouts.

3.WarriorBands.Barbariansusedtheinstitutionofthecomitatus,orwarriorband,inwhichwarriorsprovidedsupportandloyaltyinexchangefortheirleaders’generosity.Pursuingbooty,thesebandswouldbreaktruceswhentheyraidedtheirneighbors.Occasionally,thecomitatusservedasthenucleusofanewtribe.

D.RomanInfluenceintheBarbarianWorld

TheRomanEmpireitselfhelpedstrengthenthetribeswhenitdisruptedthebalanceofpowerbetweenthem.

1.TheLureofRomanCulture.BarbarianleaderstradedtheircattleforRomangoldandgrain,andenteredintomilitaryallianceswiththeRomans.These“federated”tribessawthesenewdevelopmentsincreasetheeconomicandpoliticaldisparitieswithinGermany.

2.TheWestGermanicRevolution.Thedemandformilitaryleadershipencouragedthebarbarianstotransformtheirpoliticalinstitutions,sothatwarlordsreplacedtraditionaltribalkings.TheresultingWestGermanicRevolutionsawtribesbecomearmiesandcreatepro-andanti-Romanfactions.

3.TheGothicConfederation.PoliticalchangeculminatedwiththeGothicconfederations,whogavetheirkingmoremilitarypower.Germanic,Slavic,andScythianpeoplesfollowedGothickings,allowingthemtochallengeRomanauthority.Theearlythird-centurywarswiththeGothsprovedtobemoredestructivetotheRomanEmpirethanthelaterones.

III.THEEMPIRERESTORED

Inthelatethirdcentury,AurelianrepulsedthebarbariansandreunifiedtheEmpire.Aurelius’ssuccessor,Diocletian,oversawamajortransformationofRomangovernment,aswell.

A.Diocletian,theGod-Emperor

Diocletianemphasizedtheautocraticpoweranddivinityoftheemperor,whilelimitingthegeographicalterritoryunderhisoversightbycreatingthetetrarchythatdividedtheempireintoeasternandwesternportions,eachundertheruleofanaugustusandhissubordinatecaesar.

1.TheTetrarchy.Diocletianstabilizedthecurrencybyfixingwagesandpricesandbyincreasingthesilvercontentofcoins.Healsoseparatedmilitaryfromcivilianadministration.SmallerprovincesandalargerbureaucracyweretwootherimportantgovernmentalimprovementsthatDiocletianintroduced.

2.AMilitarizedSociety.Expandingthearmyandmilitarizingsociety,Diocletiancreatedaloyalandeffectivemilitarysystem.TheeasternhalfoftheempirehadbecomemoreimportantbyDiocletian’sreign.

3.FiscalReform.Diocletianfailed,however,toreformtheRomaneconomy,andintheprocessdestroyedtheauthorityoflocalofficials.Hispracticeofbindinghereditarytenants（coloni）tothelandtoensuretheirpaymentoftaxeslaidthegroundworkforthesubsequentinstitutionofserfdom.DiocletianalsobegantheGreatPersecutionofChristiansin303,thatresultedinthedestructionofchurchesandreligioustextsandthedeathofnumerousChristians.

B.Constantine,theEmperorofGod

In305,Diocletianandhisco-augustusMaximianabdicated,turningpowerovertotheircaesars,GaleriusandConstantius.ConstantineandMaxentiusdestroyedDiocletian’stetrarchywhilefightingforpoliticalsupremacyinthewest.

1.VictoryandConversion.ConstantinekilledMaxentiusandwonthebattleoftheMilvianBridgein312.Constantine'

sconversiontoChristianityledtotolerationoftheirreligion.

2.Constantinople.ConstantinealteredboththestructureandthepoliticalcenteroftheRomanstatewhenhemovedtheimperialcapitaltoConstantinople.HisconversiontoChristianitypavedthewayforthenewreligiontobecometheofficialreligionoftheEmpire.

C.TheTriumphofChristianity

Christianityquicklyemergedastheofficialreligionwithintheempire.ConstantineusedChristianitytostrengthenhispoliticalcontrolovertheempireashesoughttobecometheheadofthechurch.Bishopsrosetopoliticaleminence,rulinglavishchurchesthattheemperorhadconstructed.

1.EmperorandChurch.SuppressionofpagancultscommencedafterConstantine’sdeathin337.Ambrose,BishopofMilan,excommunicatedEmperorTheodosiusIafterhemassacredthepeopleofThessalonica.Ambrose’sconfrontationwithTheodosiusestablishedtheprecedentofsubsequentchurch-staterelations.

2.Conversion.Miracles,itinerantpreachers,andevencoercionencouragedlargescaleconversionsinthefourthcentury.

IV.IMPERIALCHRISTIANITY

BishopsledtheChristiancommunitiesthathadspreadrapidlythroughouttheempirebytheendofthethirdcentury.DespitetheChurch’searlysuccess,problemsremained,however,asthechurchwasdividedoverquestionsoftheology.ThenatureofChristandtheroleofindividualrighteousnessinpersonalsalvationwereparticularlycontentiousissues.

A.Divinity,Humanity,andSalvation

IntheearlyChristianchurch,individualcommunitiesendorseddifferentinterpretationsconcerningthenatureofChrist.

1.Christology.QuestionsconcerningthenatureofChristledtotheso-calledChristologicalcontroversy.MostChristiansviewedGodasaTrinitycomposedoftheFather,theSon,andtheHolySpirit.Differentinterpretationsexisted,however.MonarchiansfavoredtheonenessofGod.GnosticsdeniedthehumannatureofChrist,claimingthathewasfullydivine.AriansmaintainedthatJesuswasamanandhadnodivinenature.

2.OrigenofAlexandria.OrigensynthesizedtheNeoplatonismoftheperiodwithChristianitybyarguingthattheFatherandtheSonwereco-eternal.Ariusdeniedthisnotion,however,claimingthatJesuswasnotequaltoGodtheFather.Thechallengesraisedbyhisfollowers,knownasArians,resultedintheCouncilofNicaeain325.AtNicaea,thecouncildeniedArius'

sviews.Nevertheless,manyGothsadoptedArianism.Later,theCouncilofChalcedon（451）rejectedtheclaimsoftheMonophysitesbyreiteratingitsbeliefintheTrinity.

3.Salvation.InthewestChristiansweremoreconcernedwithsalvationandman’sroleinsalvationthantheywerewiththenatureofGod.NorthAfricanDonatistsclaimedthatonly“pure”clergy（Donatists）couldadministersacraments.Meanwhile,thePelagiansbelievedperfectionwaspossibleonearththroughtheimpositionofindividualwills.

4.AugustineofHippo.St.AugustineofHippodeniedallegationsthatChristianitywasresponsibleforthedeclineofRome.Inaddition,herejectedpaganpraisefortraditionalRomanvirtues,claimingthatperfectionwasnotpossibleintheearthly“cityofman.”Accordingtohim,thesacramentsgavethesinfulaccesstothe“truechurch.”AugustinefurtherproposedthatGodgrantedmansalvationasafreegift;

theindividualwasthusnotresponsibleforhisorherownsalvation.

B.TheCalloftheDeser