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Third-centuryRomanscombinedelementsofpaganismwithChristianityasaristocraticfamiliespreservedancientculturaltraditions.Nevertheless,adramaticculturalchangewastakingplaceinthefaceofbarbarianinvasions.
II.THECRISISOFTHETHIRDCENTURY
TheRomanEmpireexperiencedseriousdomesticandforeignthreatstoitsexistenceduringthethirdcentury.Anover–extensionofimperialboundaries,anarchaiceconomicsystem,ashortageofreadycash,inflation,theuncertaintyofimperialsuccession,andtheinefficientcollectionoftaxesworsenedimperialproblems.ThefateofRomewasincreasinglybasedonmilitarysuccessandthepersonalpresenceoftheemperor.
A.EnrichtheArmyandScorntheRest
Militarydefeatsencouragedsoldierstoelevatetheirowncommandersasemperor,beginningwithSeptimiusSeverus.Financedbytheconfiscationofsenatorialwealthandadevaluedcurrency,thereformsofthesemilitaryemperorsentailedsubstantialincreasesinsoldiers'
pay,agreatergovernmentalroleforsoldiers,andarapidexpansionofthearmy.
1.TheRiseoftheMilitary.Increasedpayenabledsoldierstoimprovetheirlivingconditionsandtoclimbthesocialladder.Frontiersettlementsalsoprosperedbecauseofimperiallargesse.
2.EconomicDisaster.Soldiers’insatiabledemandsforhigherpayledtomassivecurrencydevaluationandtheninflation.Economicandpoliticalstabilityspreadassoldierssupportedandthenoverthrewasuccessionofemperors.
3.ExternalThreats.TheempirefacedincreasedattacksbyBerbers,Persians,andGermanictribesliketheAlemanniandFranks.
B.AnEmpireontheDefensive
Barbarianinvasionsshowtheweaknessofthecentralimperialadministration.Inthepowervacuum,provincialaristocratsoftensupportedseparatistmovementslikethatofPostumus.
1.TaxBurdens.Sharpsocialdivisionsfollowedthegrowingpoliticalchaosasthesenators,urbangentry,andmilitarywhoconstitutedthehonestioresevadedthegrowingburdenoftaxation,whichfellincreasinglyontherestofthepopulation,orhumiliores.
2.Banditry.Hightaxesdrovemanyintobanditry,notonlyontheperipheryoftheempirebutthroughouttheempire.ThegovernmentbrutallysuppressedresistancemovementsorBacaudae.Nevertheless,BullatheLuckywaspopularforhiseffortstohelpthepoor.Anotherbandit,Maximinus,actuallybecameemperorin235.
C.TheBarbarianMenace
Nolongerpeacefulbandsoffarmers,Germanicbarbariansorganizedintopowerfulmilitarytribalconfederationsandlaunchednumerousattacksupontheempire.
1.GermanicSociety.Livinginpatriarchalhouseholdslooselyorganizedintoclans,Germanbarbariansstructuredtheirsocialrelationsaroundregularindividualandgroupwarfare.Onekeyelementofpersonalconflictwasthefeud,eachactofwhichrequiredretribution.
2.FeudingandPeacemaking.Triballeaderswouldlaterencouragethevoluntarycashpayment,orwergeld,inlieuofbloodvengeance.Germantribesalsoencouragedunitythroughcommoncults,myths,andrituals,especiallydrinkingbouts.
3.WarriorBands.Barbariansusedtheinstitutionofthecomitatus,orwarriorband,inwhichwarriorsprovidedsupportandloyaltyinexchangefortheirleaders’generosity.Pursuingbooty,thesebandswouldbreaktruceswhentheyraidedtheirneighbors.Occasionally,thecomitatusservedasthenucleusofanewtribe.
D.RomanInfluenceintheBarbarianWorld
TheRomanEmpireitselfhelpedstrengthenthetribeswhenitdisruptedthebalanceofpowerbetweenthem.
1.TheLureofRomanCulture.BarbarianleaderstradedtheircattleforRomangoldandgrain,andenteredintomilitaryallianceswiththeRomans.These“federated”tribessawthesenewdevelopmentsincreasetheeconomicandpoliticaldisparitieswithinGermany.
2.TheWestGermanicRevolution.Thedemandformilitaryleadershipencouragedthebarbarianstotransformtheirpoliticalinstitutions,sothatwarlordsreplacedtraditionaltribalkings.TheresultingWestGermanicRevolutionsawtribesbecomearmiesandcreatepro-andanti-Romanfactions.
3.TheGothicConfederation.PoliticalchangeculminatedwiththeGothicconfederations,whogavetheirkingmoremilitarypower.Germanic,Slavic,andScythianpeoplesfollowedGothickings,allowingthemtochallengeRomanauthority.Theearlythird-centurywarswiththeGothsprovedtobemoredestructivetotheRomanEmpirethanthelaterones.
III.THEEMPIRERESTORED
Inthelatethirdcentury,AurelianrepulsedthebarbariansandreunifiedtheEmpire.Aurelius’ssuccessor,Diocletian,oversawamajortransformationofRomangovernment,aswell.
A.Diocletian,theGod-Emperor
Diocletianemphasizedtheautocraticpoweranddivinityoftheemperor,whilelimitingthegeographicalterritoryunderhisoversightbycreatingthetetrarchythatdividedtheempireintoeasternandwesternportions,eachundertheruleofanaugustusandhissubordinatecaesar.
1.TheTetrarchy.Diocletianstabilizedthecurrencybyfixingwagesandpricesandbyincreasingthesilvercontentofcoins.Healsoseparatedmilitaryfromcivilianadministration.SmallerprovincesandalargerbureaucracyweretwootherimportantgovernmentalimprovementsthatDiocletianintroduced.
2.AMilitarizedSociety.Expandingthearmyandmilitarizingsociety,Diocletiancreatedaloyalandeffectivemilitarysystem.TheeasternhalfoftheempirehadbecomemoreimportantbyDiocletian’sreign.
3.FiscalReform.Diocletianfailed,however,toreformtheRomaneconomy,andintheprocessdestroyedtheauthorityoflocalofficials.Hispracticeofbindinghereditarytenants(coloni)tothelandtoensuretheirpaymentoftaxeslaidthegroundworkforthesubsequentinstitutionofserfdom.DiocletianalsobegantheGreatPersecutionofChristiansin303,thatresultedinthedestructionofchurchesandreligioustextsandthedeathofnumerousChristians.
B.Constantine,theEmperorofGod
In305,Diocletianandhisco-augustusMaximianabdicated,turningpowerovertotheircaesars,GaleriusandConstantius.ConstantineandMaxentiusdestroyedDiocletian’stetrarchywhilefightingforpoliticalsupremacyinthewest.
1.VictoryandConversion.ConstantinekilledMaxentiusandwonthebattleoftheMilvianBridgein312.Constantine'
sconversiontoChristianityledtotolerationoftheirreligion.
2.Constantinople.ConstantinealteredboththestructureandthepoliticalcenteroftheRomanstatewhenhemovedtheimperialcapitaltoConstantinople.HisconversiontoChristianitypavedthewayforthenewreligiontobecometheofficialreligionoftheEmpire.
C.TheTriumphofChristianity
Christianityquicklyemergedastheofficialreligionwithintheempire.ConstantineusedChristianitytostrengthenhispoliticalcontrolovertheempireashesoughttobecometheheadofthechurch.Bishopsrosetopoliticaleminence,rulinglavishchurchesthattheemperorhadconstructed.
1.EmperorandChurch.SuppressionofpagancultscommencedafterConstantine’sdeathin337.Ambrose,BishopofMilan,excommunicatedEmperorTheodosiusIafterhemassacredthepeopleofThessalonica.Ambrose’sconfrontationwithTheodosiusestablishedtheprecedentofsubsequentchurch-staterelations.
2.Conversion.Miracles,itinerantpreachers,andevencoercionencouragedlargescaleconversionsinthefourthcentury.
IV.IMPERIALCHRISTIANITY
BishopsledtheChristiancommunitiesthathadspreadrapidlythroughouttheempirebytheendofthethirdcentury.DespitetheChurch’searlysuccess,problemsremained,however,asthechurchwasdividedoverquestionsoftheology.ThenatureofChristandtheroleofindividualrighteousnessinpersonalsalvationwereparticularlycontentiousissues.
A.Divinity,Humanity,andSalvation
IntheearlyChristianchurch,individualcommunitiesendorseddifferentinterpretationsconcerningthenatureofChrist.
1.Christology.QuestionsconcerningthenatureofChristledtotheso-calledChristologicalcontroversy.MostChristiansviewedGodasaTrinitycomposedoftheFather,theSon,andtheHolySpirit.Differentinterpretationsexisted,however.MonarchiansfavoredtheonenessofGod.GnosticsdeniedthehumannatureofChrist,claimingthathewasfullydivine.AriansmaintainedthatJesuswasamanandhadnodivinenature.
2.OrigenofAlexandria.OrigensynthesizedtheNeoplatonismoftheperiodwithChristianitybyarguingthattheFatherandtheSonwereco-eternal.Ariusdeniedthisnotion,however,claimingthatJesuswasnotequaltoGodtheFather.Thechallengesraisedbyhisfollowers,knownasArians,resultedintheCouncilofNicaeain325.AtNicaea,thecouncildeniedArius'
sviews.Nevertheless,manyGothsadoptedArianism.Later,theCouncilofChalcedon(451)rejectedtheclaimsoftheMonophysitesbyreiteratingitsbeliefintheTrinity.
3.Salvation.InthewestChristiansweremoreconcernedwithsalvationandman’sroleinsalvationthantheywerewiththenatureofGod.NorthAfricanDonatistsclaimedthatonly“pure”clergy(Donatists)couldadministersacraments.Meanwhile,thePelagiansbelievedperfectionwaspossibleonearththroughtheimpositionofindividualwills.
4.AugustineofHippo.St.AugustineofHippodeniedallegationsthatChristianitywasresponsibleforthedeclineofRome.Inaddition,herejectedpaganpraisefortraditionalRomanvirtues,claimingthatperfectionwasnotpossibleintheearthly“cityofman.”Accordingtohim,thesacramentsgavethesinfulaccesstothe“truechurch.”AugustinefurtherproposedthatGodgrantedmansalvationasafreegift;
theindividualwasthusnotresponsibleforhisorherownsalvation.
B.TheCalloftheDeser