世界文明史06pptWord文档下载推荐.docx

1、Third-century Romans combined elements of paganism with Christianity as aristocratic families preserved ancient cultural traditions. Nevertheless, a dramatic cultural change was taking place in the face of barbarian invasions.II. THE CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURYThe Roman Empire experienced serious do

2、mestic and foreign threats to its existence during the third century. An overextension of imperial boundaries, an archaic economic system, a shortage of ready cash, inflation, the uncertainty of imperial succession, and the inefficient collection of taxes worsened imperial problems. The fate of Rome

3、 was increasingly based on military success and the personal presence of the emperor.A. Enrich the Army and Scorn the RestMilitary defeats encouraged soldiers to elevate their own commanders as emperor, beginning with Septimius Severus. Financed by the confiscation of senatorial wealth and a devalue

4、d currency, the reforms of these military emperors entailed substantial increases in soldiers pay, a greater governmental role for soldiers, and a rapid expansion of the army.1. The Rise of the Military. Increased pay enabled soldiers to improve their living conditions and to climb the social ladder

5、. Frontier settlements also prospered because of imperial largesse.2. Economic Disaster. Soldiers insatiable demands for higher pay led to massive currency devaluation and then inflation. Economic and political stability spread as soldiers supported and then overthrew a succession of emperors.3. Ext

6、ernal Threats. The empire faced increased attacks by Berbers, Persians, and Germanic tribes like the Alemanni and Franks.B. An Empire on the DefensiveBarbarian invasions show the weakness of the central imperial administration. In the power vacuum, provincial aristocrats often supported separatist m

7、ovements like that of Postumus.1. Tax Burdens. Sharp social divisions followed the growing political chaos as the senators, urban gentry, and military who constituted the honestiores evaded the growing burden of taxation, which fell increasingly on the rest of the population, or humiliores.2. Bandit

8、ry. High taxes drove many into banditry, not only on the periphery of the empire but throughout the empire. The government brutally suppressed resistance movements or Bacaudae. Nevertheless, Bulla the Lucky was popular for his efforts to help the poor. Another bandit, Maximinus, actually became empe

9、ror in 235.C. The Barbarian MenaceNo longer peaceful bands of farmers, Germanic barbarians organized into powerful military tribal confederations and launched numerous attacks upon the empire.1. Germanic Society. Living in patriarchal households loosely organized into clans, German barbarians struct

10、ured their social relations around regular individual and group warfare. One key element of personal conflict was the feud, each act of which required retribution.2. Feuding and Peacemaking. Tribal leaders would later encourage the voluntary cash payment, or wergeld, in lieu of blood vengeance. Germ

11、an tribes also encouraged unity through common cults, myths, and rituals, especially drinking bouts.3. Warrior Bands. Barbarians used the institution of the comitatus, or warrior band, in which warriors provided support and loyalty in exchange for their leaders generosity. Pursuing booty, these band

12、s would break truces when they raided their neighbors. Occasionally, the comitatus served as the nucleus of a new tribe.D. Roman Influence in the Barbarian WorldThe Roman Empire itself helped strengthen the tribes when it disrupted the balance of power between them.1. The Lure of Roman Culture. Barb

13、arian leaders traded their cattle for Roman gold and grain, and entered into military alliances with the Romans. These “federated” tribes saw these new developments increase the economic and political disparities within Germany.2. The West Germanic Revolution. The demand for military leadership enco

14、uraged the barbarians to transform their political institutions, so that war lords replaced traditional tribal kings. The resulting West Germanic Revolution saw tribes become armies and create pro- and anti-Roman factions.3. The Gothic Confederation. Political change culminated with the Gothic confe

15、derations, who gave their king more military power. Germanic, Slavic, and Scythian peoples followed Gothic kings, allowing them to challenge Roman authority. The early third-century wars with the Goths proved to be more destructive to the Roman Empire than the later ones.III. THE EMPIRE RESTOREDIn t

16、he late third century, Aurelian repulsed the barbarians and reunified the Empire. Aureliuss successor, Diocletian, oversaw a major transformation of Roman government, as well.A. Diocletian, the God-EmperorDiocletian emphasized the autocratic power and divinity of the emperor, while limiting the geog

17、raphical territory under his oversight by creating the tetrarchy that divided the empire into eastern and western portions, each under the rule of an augustus and his subordinate caesar.1. The Tetrarchy. Diocletian stabilized the currency by fixing wages and prices and by increasing the silver conte

18、nt of coins. He also separated military from civilian administration. Smaller provinces and a larger bureaucracy were two other important governmental improvements that Diocletian introduced.2. A Militarized Society. Expanding the army and militarizing society, Diocletian created a loyal and effecti

19、ve military system. The eastern half of the empire had become more important by Diocletians reign.3. Fiscal Reform. Diocletian failed, however, to reform the Roman economy, and in the process destroyed the authority of local officials. His practice of binding hereditary tenants （coloni） to the land

20、to ensure their payment of taxes laid the groundwork for the subsequent institution of serfdom. Diocletian also began the Great Persecution of Christians in 303, that resulted in the destruction of churches and religious texts and the death of numerous Christians.B. Constantine, the Emperor of GodIn

21、 305, Diocletian and his co-augustus Maximian abdicated, turning power over to their caesars, Galerius and Constantius. Constantine and Maxentius destroyed Diocletians tetrarchy while fighting for political supremacy in the west.1. Victory and Conversion. Constantine killed Maxentius and won the bat

22、tle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Constantines conversion to Christianity led to toleration of their religion.2. Constantinople. Constantine altered both the structure and the political center of the Roman state when he moved the imperial capital to Constantinople. His conversion to Christianity pav

23、ed the way for the new religion to become the official religion of the Empire.C. The Triumph of ChristianityChristianity quickly emerged as the official religion within the empire. Constantine used Christianity to strengthen his political control over the empire as he sought to become the head of th

24、e church. Bishops rose to political eminence, ruling lavish churches that the emperor had constructed.1. Emperor and Church. Suppression of pagan cults commenced after Constantines death in 337. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, excommunicated Emperor Theodosius I after he massacred the people of Thessaloni

25、ca. Ambroses confrontation with Theodosius established the precedent of subsequent church-state relations.2. Conversion. Miracles, itinerant preachers, and even coercion encouraged largescale conversions in the fourth century.IV. IMPERIAL CHRISTIANITYBishops led the Christian communities that had sp

26、read rapidly throughout the empire by the end of the third century. Despite the Churchs early success, problems remained, however, as the church was divided over questions of theology. The nature of Christ and the role of individual righteousness in personal salvation were particularly contentious i

27、ssues.A. Divinity, Humanity, and SalvationIn the early Christian church, individual communities endorsed different interpretations concerning the nature of Christ.1. Christology. Questions concerning the nature of Christ led to the so-called Christological controversy. Most Christians viewed God as

28、a Trinity composed of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Different interpretations existed, however. Monarchians favored the oneness of God. Gnostics denied the human nature of Christ, claiming that he was fully divine. Arians maintained that Jesus was a man and had no divine nature.2. Origen

29、 of Alexandria. Origen synthesized the Neoplatonism of the period with Christianity by arguing that the Father and the Son were co-eternal. Arius denied this notion, however, claiming that Jesus was not equal to God the Father. The challenges raised by his followers, known as Arians, resulted in the

30、 Council of Nicaea in 325. At Nicaea, the council denied Ariuss views. Nevertheless, many Goths adopted Arianism. Later, the Council of Chalcedon （451） rejected the claims of the Monophysites by reiterating its belief in the Trinity.3. Salvation. In the west Christians were more concerned with salva

31、tion and mans role in salvation than they were with the nature of God. North African Donatists claimed that only “pure” clergy （Donatists） could administer sacraments. Meanwhile, the Pelagians believed perfection was possible on earth through the imposition of individual wills.4. Augustine of Hippo.

32、 St. Augustine of Hippo denied allegations that Christianity was responsible for the decline of Rome. In addition, he rejected pagan praise for traditional Roman virtues, claiming that perfection was not possible in the earthly “city of man.” According to him, the sacraments gave the sinful access to the “true church.” Augustine further proposed that God granted man salvation as a free gift; the individual was thus not responsible for his or her own salvation.B. The Call of the Deser