戴炜栋新编简明语言学教程文档版Word文档格式.docx
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itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"
correct"
behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
2.SynchronicandDiachronic
ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy。
共时性对语言在历史的某一时间点的描述，历时性对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述
3.SpeechandWriting.
4.LangueandParole
ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure（索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized（实际的）language,orrealizationoflangue.瑞士语言学家索绪尔于20实际早期提出，语言是一个话语社团所有成员共有的抽象的语言系统，言语是语言在实际运用中的实现。
5.CompetenceandandPerformance
Competenceistheideallanguageuser'
sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances（发声）.语言能力定为理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识，语言运用在语言交流中的具体实现。
6Modernlinguisticsandtraditionalgrammar现代语言学与传统语法
Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.语言学是描述性的而传统语法是规定。
Secondly,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.现代语言学家认为口头语是最基本的，而不是书面语。
Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.现在语言学不同于传统语法还在于它不强行将语言放进一个拉丁语为基础的框架内.
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是有任意性，用于人类交流的语音标志系统。
语言的本质特征
1Languageisasystem,i.e,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtocertainrules.语言是一个系统，即语言的元素相结合，按照一定的规则
2Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系，从这个意义上说语言是任意的。
3Languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.语言是有声，因为所有语言的主要媒介都是声音
4Languageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.语言是人类特有的，它与其他生物的交际系统不同
Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的结构，识别特征
Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.识别的特征指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征
1arbitrariness----Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconventionbetweenmeaningandsounds.任意性-意味意义和语言之间的没有什么逻辑的联系
2productivityorCreativity---languageisproductivityorcreativityinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.能产性-语言是能产的或具有创造性的，它使得者可以建构或和解释的新的符号
3duality--languageissystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures.双重性--语言系统，它由两种结构组成套thelowerorthebasiclevel----soundswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowordsthehigherlevel----wordswhicharemeaningful.
4Displacement----Languagecanbeusetorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker。
移位性-语言能够指远离说话人所在场合的情境
5Culturaltransmissionwhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.文化传承性--而人类的语言能力具有遗传的基础，任何语言系统的细节都要靠传教和学习。
Chapter2Phoneticsandphonology
Phoneticsthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages..语音学是对语言的媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中所有的语音
Threebranchesofphonetics语音学三个分支
Articulatory[ɑ:
'
tikjuleitəri]phonetics---发音语音学（历史最悠久）
Auditory.['
ɔ:
ditəri]phonetics----听觉语音学
Acoustic[ə'
ku:
stik]phonetics---声学语音学
threeimportantcavitiesOrgansofspeech三个重要区域发音器官
Pharyngeal[fæ
rindʒi:
əl]cavity----thethroat[θrəut];
咽腔，喉咙
Theoralcavity----themouth;
口腔，嘴巴
Nasal['
neɪzəl]cavity----thenose.鼻腔，鼻子
Lips,teeth,teethridge[ridʒ]（alveolus）齿龈,hardpalate硬腭,softpalate（velum）软腭,uvula['
ju:
vjulə]小舌,tipoftongue
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）.国际音标
Orthographic{ɔ:
θəɡræ
fik}representationofspeechsounds语音的正字法表征
Broadtranscription【træ
n'
skrɪpʃə】--thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly宽式标音是用代表字母的符号标音
Narrowtranscription---thetranscriptionwithdiacritics.[,daiə'
kritik]严式标音是用代表字母的符号和变音共同标音
Voiceless:
whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.[,ʌnim'
pi:
did]清音是当声带完全张开，气流通过声带而不引起振动
Voicing/voiced:
whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibration[vaɪ'
breɪʃən]effect浊化是当气流在强行穿过的时候会使他们以不同的速度振动。
ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类
Vowels['
vaʊəl]andConsonants['
kɔnsənənt]元音和辅音
Classificationofconsonants辅音的分类
----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions[di'
menʃən]:
1Themannerofarticulation2Theplaceofarticulation英语中的辅音按两种标准划分：
1发音方式2发音部位
Themannerofarticulation
nstops/plosives:
[p],,[t],[d],[k],[g];
闭塞音
fricatives['
frikətiv]:
[f],[v],[s],[z],[],[],[],[],[h];
摩擦音
affricates['
æ
frikit]:
[],[];
塞擦音
liquids['
likwid]:
[r];
[l]流音
nasals['
neɪzəl]:
[m],[n],[];
鼻音
glides[ɡlaid]:
[w],[j].滑音
Theplaceofarticulation
bilabial[bai'
leibiəl]:
[p],,[m],[w],[b]双唇音
nlabiodental['
leibiəu'
dentl]:
[f],[v];
唇齿音
ndental.[dentəl]:
[W],[T];
齿音
nalveolar[æ
l'
viələ:
[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];
齿龈音
npalatal['
pæ
lətəl]:
[F],[V],[tF],[dV],[j];
腭音
nvelar['
vi:
lə]:
[k],[g],[N];
软颚音
nglottal['
ɡlɔtl]:
[h].喉音
ClassificationofEnglishvowels英语元音的分类
1.thepartofthetonguethatisraised---front,centerorback
2.theopeningofthemouth----close,semi-close,semi-open,open
3.theshapeofthelips---rounded,unrounded
4.thelengthofthesound---tense,lax（紧，松）
nMonophthongs['
mɔnəufθɔŋ]orpure/singlevowels元音
nDiphthongs['
dɪf,θɔ:
ŋorglidingvowels双元音
frontvowelscentralvowelsbackvowels
Close闭
Semi-close:
半闭
Semi-open:
半开
n
Open:
开
Phonology
Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.
Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.
Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.
Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?
Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?
Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?
Phonetics&
phonology
Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.
Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;
itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;
itaimstoanswerquestionslike:
howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.
Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
Phone,phoneme,allophone
Phone:
thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit–phoneme
Phoneme:
themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarks
Allophone:
asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme
Phone
nAphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:
t]&
[bIt],[spIt]&
[spIt].
Phoneme
nAphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;
itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;
anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].
Allophone
nAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.
Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.
nPhonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g.
/b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].
nComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.
dark[l]&
clear[l],aspirated[p]&
unaspirated[p].
Minimalpair
nMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical（thesame）ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.
beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.
Somerulesofphonology
nSequentialrules
nAssimilationrule
nDeletionrule
Sequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEn
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