Unit 8 Ocean Laws参考Word文件下载.docx
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UnderstandingandLearning
BackgroundInformation
1.AHistoricalPerspectiveontheUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea
Theoceanshadlongbeensubjecttothefreedomof-the-seasdoctrine-aprincipleputforthintheseventeenthcenturyessentiallylimitingnationalrightsandjurisdictionovertheoceanstoanarrowbeltofseasurroundinganation'
scoastline.Theremainderoftheseaswasproclaimedtobefreetoallandbelongingtonone.Whilethissituationprevailedintothetwentiethcentury,bymid-centurytherewasanimpetustoextendnationalclaimsoveroffshoreresources.Therewasgrowingconcernoverthetolltakenoncoastalfishstocksbylong-distancefishingfleetsandoverthethreatofpollutionandwastesfromtransportshipsandoiltankerscarryingnoxiouscargoesthatpliedsearoutesacrosstheglobe.Thehazardofpollutionwaseverpresent,threateningcoastalresortsandallformsofoceanlife.Thenaviesofthemaritimepowerswerecompetingtomaintainapresenceacrosstheglobeonthesurfacewatersandevenunderthesea.
Atangleofclaims,spreadingpollution,competingdemandsforlucrativefishstocksincoastalwatersandadjacentseas,growingtensionbetweencoastalnations'
rightstotheseresourcesandthoseofdistant-waterfishermen,theprospectsofarichharvestofresourcesontheseafloor,theincreasedpresenceofmaritimepowersandthepressuresoflong-distancenavigationandaseeminglyoutdated,ifnotinherentlyconflicting,freedom-of-the-seasdoctrine-allthesewerethreateningtotransformtheoceansintoanotherarenaforconflictandinstability.
In1945,PresidentHarrySTruman,respondinginparttopressurefromdomesticoilinterests,unilaterallyextendedUnitedStatesjurisdictionoverallnaturalresourcesonthatnation'
scontinentalshelf-oil,gas,minerals,etc.Thiswasthefirstmajorchallengetothefreedom-of-the-seasdoctrine.Othernationssoonfollowedsuit.
InOctober1946,Argentinaclaimeditsshelfandtheepicontinentalseaaboveit.ChileandPeruin1947,andEcuadorin1950,assertedsovereignrightsovera200-milezone,hopingtherebytolimittheaccessofdistant-waterfishingfleetsandtocontrolthedepletionoffishstocksintheiradjacentseas.
SoonaftertheSecondWorldWar,Egypt,Ethiopia,SaudiArabia,Libya,VenezuelaandsomeEasternEuropeancountrieslaidclaimtoa12-mileterritorialsea,thusclearlydepartingfromthetraditionalthree-milelimit.
Later,thearchipelagicnationofIndonesiaassertedtherighttodominionoverthewaterthatseparatedits13,000islands.ThePhilippinesdidlikewise.In1970,Canadaassertedtherighttoregulatenavigationinanareaextendingfor100milesfromitsshoresinordertoprotectArcticwateragainstpollution.
Fromoiltotin,diamondstogravel,metalstofish,theresourcesoftheseaareenormous.Therealityoftheirexploitationgrowsdaybydayastechnologyopensnewwaystotapthoseresources.
Inthelate1960s,oilexplorationwasmovingfurtherandfurtherfromland,deeperanddeeperintothebedrockofcontinentalmargins.Fromamodestbeginningin1947intheGulfofMexico,offshoreoilproduction,stilllessthanamilliontonsin1954,hadgrowntocloseto400milliontons.Oildrillingequipmentwasalreadygoingasfaras4,000metersbelowtheoceansurface.
Theoceanswerebeingexploitedasneverbefore.Activitiesunknownbarelytwodecadesearlierwereinfullswingaroundtheworld.TinhadbeenminedintheshallowwatersoffThailandandIndonesia.SouthAfricawasabouttotaptheNamibiancoastfordiamonds.Potato-shapednodules,foundalmostacenturyearlierandlyingontheseabedsomefivekilometersbelow,wereattractingincreasedinterestbecauseoftheirmetalcontent.
Andthentherewasfishing.Largefishingvesselswereroamingtheoceansfarfromtheirnativeshores,capableofstayingawayfromportformonthsatatime.Fishstocksbegantoshowsignsofdepletionasfleetafterfleetsweptdistantcoastlines.Nationswerefloodingtherichestfishingwaterswiththeirfishingfleetsvirtuallyunrestrained:
coastalStatessettinglimitsandfishingStatescontestingthem.Theso-called"
CodWar"
betweenIcelandandtheUnitedKingdomhadbroughtaboutthespectacleofBritishNavyshipsdispatchedtorescueafishingvesselseizedbyIcelandforviolatingitsfishingrules.
OffshoreoilwasthecentreofattractionintheNorthSea.Britain,DenmarkandGermanywereinconflictastohowtocarveupthecontinentalshelf,withitsrichoilresources.
Itwaslate1967andthetranquilityoftheseawasslowlybeingdisruptedbytechnologicalbreakthroughs,acceleratingandmultiplyinguses,andasuper-Powerrivalrythatstoodpoisedtoenterman'
slastpreserve-theseabed.
Itwasatimethatheldbothdangersandpromises,risksandhopes.Thedangerswerenumerous:
nuclearsubmarineschartingdeepwatersneverbeforeexplored;
designsforantiballisticmissilesystemstobeplacedontheseabed;
supertankersferryingoilfromtheMiddleEasttoEuropeanandotherports,passingthroughcongestedstraitsandleavingbehindatrailofoilspills;
andrisingtensionsbetweennationsoverconflictingclaimstooceanspaceandresources.
Theoceansweregeneratingamultitudeofclaims,counterclaimsandsovereigntydisputes.
Thehopewasforamorestableorder,promotinggreateruseandbettermanagementofoceanresourcesandgeneratingharmonyandgoodwillamongStatesthatwouldnolongerhavetoeyeeachothersuspiciouslyoverconflictingclaims.
2.ThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea
On1November1967,Malta'
sAmbassadortotheUnitedNations,ArvidPardo,askedthenationsoftheworldtolookaroundthemandopentheireyestoaloomingconflictthatcoulddevastatetheoceans,thelifelineofman'
sverysurvival.InaspeechtotheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,hespokeofthesuper-Powerrivalrythatwasspreadingtotheoceans,ofthepollutionthatwaspoisoningtheseas,oftheconflictinglegalclaimsandtheirimplicationsforastableorderandoftherichpotentialthatlayontheseabed.
Pardoendedwithacallfor"
aneffectiveinternationalregimeovertheseabedandtheoceanfloorbeyondaclearlydefinednationaljurisdiction"
."
Itistheonlyalternativebywhichwecanhopetoavoidtheescalatingtensionthatwillbeinevitableifthepresentsituationisallowedtocontinue"
hesaid.
Pardo'
surgingcameatatimewhenmanyrecognizedtheneedforupdatingthefreedom-of-the-seasdoctrinetotakeintoaccountthetechnologicalchangesthathadalteredman'
srelationshiptotheoceans.Itsetinmotionaprocessthatspanned15yearsandsawthecreationoftheUnitedNationsSeabedCommittee,thesigningofatreatybanningnuclearweaponsontheseabed,theadoptionofthedeclarationbytheGeneralAssemblythatallresourcesoftheseabedbeyondthelimitsofnationaljurisdictionarethecommonheritageofmankindandtheconveningoftheStockholmConferenceontheHumanEnvironment.Whatstartedasanexercisetoregulatetheseabedturnedintoaglobaldiplomaticefforttoregulateandwriterulesforalloceanareas,allusesoftheseasandallofitsresources.TheseweresomeofthefactorsthatledtotheconveningoftheThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea,towriteacomprehensivetreatyfortheoceans.
TheConferencewasconvenedinNewYorkin1973.Itendednineyearslaterwiththeadoptionin1982ofaconstitutionfortheseas-theUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea.Duringthosenineyears,shuttlingbackandforthbetweenNewYorkandGeneva,representativesofmorethan160sovereignStatessatdownanddiscussedtheissues,bargainedandtradednationalrightsandobligationsinthecourseofthemarathonnegotiationsthatproducedtheConvention.
3.EuropeanEconomicCommunity
TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC)(alsoknownastheCommonMarketintheEnglish-speakingworldandsometimesreferredtoastheEuropeanCommunityevenbeforeitin1993wasrenamedassuch)wasaninternationalorganisationcreatedbythe1957TreatyofRome.[1]Itsaimwastobringabouteconomicintegration,includingacommonmarket,amongitssixfoundingmembers:
Belgium,France,Germany,Italy,LuxembourgandtheNetherlands.
ItgainedacommonsetofinstitutionsalongwiththeEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC)andtheEuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity(EURATOM)asoneoftheEuropeanCommunitiesunderthe1965MergerTreaty(TreatyofBrussels).
UpontheentryintoforceoftheMaastrichtTreatyin1993,theEECwasrenamedtheEuropeanCommunity(EC)toreflectthatitcoveredawiderrangeofpolicy.ThiswasalsowhenthethreeEuropeanCommunities,includingtheEC,werecollectivelymadetoconstitutethefirstofthethreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion(EU),whichthetreatyalsofounded.TheECexistedinthisformuntilitwasabolishedbythe2009TreatyofLisbon,whichmergedtheEU’sformerpillarsandprovidedthattheEUwould"
replaceandsucceedtheEuropeanCommunity."
Thisarticledealswiththeindependentinternationalorganisationwhichexistedpriorto1993.
4.Customaryinternationallaw
Customaryinternationallawarethoseaspectsofinternationallawthatderivefromcustom.Alongwithgeneralprinciplesoflawandtreaties,customisconsideredbytheInternationalCourtofJustice,jurists,theUnitedNations,anditsmemberstatestobeamongtheprimarysourcesofinternationallaw.
Thevastmajorityoftheworld'
sgovernmentsaccept