Unit 8 Ocean Laws参考Word文件下载.docx

Unit 8 Ocean Laws参考Word文件下载.docx

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UnderstandingandLearning

BackgroundInformation

1.AHistoricalPerspectiveontheUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea

Theoceanshadlongbeensubjecttothefreedomof-the-seasdoctrine-aprincipleputforthintheseventeenthcenturyessentiallylimitingnationalrightsandjurisdictionovertheoceanstoanarrowbeltofseasurroundinganation'

scoastline.Theremainderoftheseaswasproclaimedtobefreetoallandbelongingtonone.Whilethissituationprevailedintothetwentiethcentury,bymid-centurytherewasanimpetustoextendnationalclaimsoveroffshoreresources.Therewasgrowingconcernoverthetolltakenoncoastalfishstocksbylong-distancefishingfleetsandoverthethreatofpollutionandwastesfromtransportshipsandoiltankerscarryingnoxiouscargoesthatpliedsearoutesacrosstheglobe.Thehazardofpollutionwaseverpresent,threateningcoastalresortsandallformsofoceanlife.Thenaviesofthemaritimepowerswerecompetingtomaintainapresenceacrosstheglobeonthesurfacewatersandevenunderthesea.

Atangleofclaims,spreadingpollution,competingdemandsforlucrativefishstocksincoastalwatersandadjacentseas,growingtensionbetweencoastalnations'

rightstotheseresourcesandthoseofdistant-waterfishermen,theprospectsofarichharvestofresourcesontheseafloor,theincreasedpresenceofmaritimepowersandthepressuresoflong-distancenavigationandaseeminglyoutdated,ifnotinherentlyconflicting,freedom-of-the-seasdoctrine-allthesewerethreateningtotransformtheoceansintoanotherarenaforconflictandinstability.

In1945,PresidentHarrySTruman,respondinginparttopressurefromdomesticoilinterests,unilaterallyextendedUnitedStatesjurisdictionoverallnaturalresourcesonthatnation'

scontinentalshelf-oil,gas,minerals,etc.Thiswasthefirstmajorchallengetothefreedom-of-the-seasdoctrine.Othernationssoonfollowedsuit.

InOctober1946,Argentinaclaimeditsshelfandtheepicontinentalseaaboveit.ChileandPeruin1947,andEcuadorin1950,assertedsovereignrightsovera200-milezone,hopingtherebytolimittheaccessofdistant-waterfishingfleetsandtocontrolthedepletionoffishstocksintheiradjacentseas.

SoonaftertheSecondWorldWar,Egypt,Ethiopia,SaudiArabia,Libya,VenezuelaandsomeEasternEuropeancountrieslaidclaimtoa12-mileterritorialsea,thusclearlydepartingfromthetraditionalthree-milelimit.

Later,thearchipelagicnationofIndonesiaassertedtherighttodominionoverthewaterthatseparatedits13,000islands.ThePhilippinesdidlikewise.In1970,Canadaassertedtherighttoregulatenavigationinanareaextendingfor100milesfromitsshoresinordertoprotectArcticwateragainstpollution.

Fromoiltotin,diamondstogravel,metalstofish,theresourcesoftheseaareenormous.Therealityoftheirexploitationgrowsdaybydayastechnologyopensnewwaystotapthoseresources.

Inthelate1960s,oilexplorationwasmovingfurtherandfurtherfromland,deeperanddeeperintothebedrockofcontinentalmargins.Fromamodestbeginningin1947intheGulfofMexico,offshoreoilproduction,stilllessthanamilliontonsin1954,hadgrowntocloseto400milliontons.Oildrillingequipmentwasalreadygoingasfaras4,000metersbelowtheoceansurface.

Theoceanswerebeingexploitedasneverbefore.Activitiesunknownbarelytwodecadesearlierwereinfullswingaroundtheworld.TinhadbeenminedintheshallowwatersoffThailandandIndonesia.SouthAfricawasabouttotaptheNamibiancoastfordiamonds.Potato-shapednodules,foundalmostacenturyearlierandlyingontheseabedsomefivekilometersbelow,wereattractingincreasedinterestbecauseoftheirmetalcontent.

Andthentherewasfishing.Largefishingvesselswereroamingtheoceansfarfromtheirnativeshores,capableofstayingawayfromportformonthsatatime.Fishstocksbegantoshowsignsofdepletionasfleetafterfleetsweptdistantcoastlines.Nationswerefloodingtherichestfishingwaterswiththeirfishingfleetsvirtuallyunrestrained:

coastalStatessettinglimitsandfishingStatescontestingthem.Theso-called"

CodWar"

betweenIcelandandtheUnitedKingdomhadbroughtaboutthespectacleofBritishNavyshipsdispatchedtorescueafishingvesselseizedbyIcelandforviolatingitsfishingrules.

OffshoreoilwasthecentreofattractionintheNorthSea.Britain,DenmarkandGermanywereinconflictastohowtocarveupthecontinentalshelf,withitsrichoilresources.

Itwaslate1967andthetranquilityoftheseawasslowlybeingdisruptedbytechnologicalbreakthroughs,acceleratingandmultiplyinguses,andasuper-Powerrivalrythatstoodpoisedtoenterman'

slastpreserve-theseabed.

Itwasatimethatheldbothdangersandpromises,risksandhopes.Thedangerswerenumerous:

nuclearsubmarineschartingdeepwatersneverbeforeexplored;

designsforantiballisticmissilesystemstobeplacedontheseabed;

supertankersferryingoilfromtheMiddleEasttoEuropeanandotherports,passingthroughcongestedstraitsandleavingbehindatrailofoilspills;

andrisingtensionsbetweennationsoverconflictingclaimstooceanspaceandresources.

Theoceansweregeneratingamultitudeofclaims,counterclaimsandsovereigntydisputes.

Thehopewasforamorestableorder,promotinggreateruseandbettermanagementofoceanresourcesandgeneratingharmonyandgoodwillamongStatesthatwouldnolongerhavetoeyeeachothersuspiciouslyoverconflictingclaims.

2.ThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea

On1November1967,Malta'

sAmbassadortotheUnitedNations,ArvidPardo,askedthenationsoftheworldtolookaroundthemandopentheireyestoaloomingconflictthatcoulddevastatetheoceans,thelifelineofman'

sverysurvival.InaspeechtotheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,hespokeofthesuper-Powerrivalrythatwasspreadingtotheoceans,ofthepollutionthatwaspoisoningtheseas,oftheconflictinglegalclaimsandtheirimplicationsforastableorderandoftherichpotentialthatlayontheseabed.

Pardoendedwithacallfor"

aneffectiveinternationalregimeovertheseabedandtheoceanfloorbeyondaclearlydefinednationaljurisdiction"

."

Itistheonlyalternativebywhichwecanhopetoavoidtheescalatingtensionthatwillbeinevitableifthepresentsituationisallowedtocontinue"

hesaid.

Pardo'

surgingcameatatimewhenmanyrecognizedtheneedforupdatingthefreedom-of-the-seasdoctrinetotakeintoaccountthetechnologicalchangesthathadalteredman'

srelationshiptotheoceans.Itsetinmotionaprocessthatspanned15yearsandsawthecreationoftheUnitedNationsSeabedCommittee,thesigningofatreatybanningnuclearweaponsontheseabed,theadoptionofthedeclarationbytheGeneralAssemblythatallresourcesoftheseabedbeyondthelimitsofnationaljurisdictionarethecommonheritageofmankindandtheconveningoftheStockholmConferenceontheHumanEnvironment.Whatstartedasanexercisetoregulatetheseabedturnedintoaglobaldiplomaticefforttoregulateandwriterulesforalloceanareas,allusesoftheseasandallofitsresources.TheseweresomeofthefactorsthatledtotheconveningoftheThirdUnitedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea,towriteacomprehensivetreatyfortheoceans.

TheConferencewasconvenedinNewYorkin1973.Itendednineyearslaterwiththeadoptionin1982ofaconstitutionfortheseas-theUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea.Duringthosenineyears,shuttlingbackandforthbetweenNewYorkandGeneva,representativesofmorethan160sovereignStatessatdownanddiscussedtheissues,bargainedandtradednationalrightsandobligationsinthecourseofthemarathonnegotiationsthatproducedtheConvention.

3.EuropeanEconomicCommunity

TheEuropeanEconomicCommunity（EEC）（alsoknownastheCommonMarketintheEnglish-speakingworldandsometimesreferredtoastheEuropeanCommunityevenbeforeitin1993wasrenamedassuch）wasaninternationalorganisationcreatedbythe1957TreatyofRome.[1]Itsaimwastobringabouteconomicintegration,includingacommonmarket,amongitssixfoundingmembers:

Belgium,France,Germany,Italy,LuxembourgandtheNetherlands.

ItgainedacommonsetofinstitutionsalongwiththeEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity（ECSC）andtheEuropeanAtomicEnergyCommunity（EURATOM）asoneoftheEuropeanCommunitiesunderthe1965MergerTreaty（TreatyofBrussels）.

UpontheentryintoforceoftheMaastrichtTreatyin1993,theEECwasrenamedtheEuropeanCommunity（EC）toreflectthatitcoveredawiderrangeofpolicy.ThiswasalsowhenthethreeEuropeanCommunities,includingtheEC,werecollectivelymadetoconstitutethefirstofthethreepillarsoftheEuropeanUnion（EU）,whichthetreatyalsofounded.TheECexistedinthisformuntilitwasabolishedbythe2009TreatyofLisbon,whichmergedtheEU’sformerpillarsandprovidedthattheEUwould"

replaceandsucceedtheEuropeanCommunity."

Thisarticledealswiththeindependentinternationalorganisationwhichexistedpriorto1993.

4.Customaryinternationallaw

Customaryinternationallawarethoseaspectsofinternationallawthatderivefromcustom.Alongwithgeneralprinciplesoflawandtreaties,customisconsideredbytheInternationalCourtofJustice,jurists,theUnitedNations,anditsmemberstatestobeamongtheprimarysourcesofinternationallaw.

Thevastmajorityoftheworld'

sgovernmentsaccept