ProfessorShellyKagan:
We'vebeguntoturntoPlato'sdialoguePhaedo,andwhatIstarteddoinglasttimewassketchingthebasicoutlinesofPlato'smetaphysics--notsomuchtogiveafullinvestigationofthat--clearlywe'renotgoingtodothathere--butjusttoprovideenoughoftheessentialoutlinesofPlato'smetaphysicalviewssothatwecanunderstandtheargumentsthatcomeuplaterinthePhaedo,basicallyallofwhichormanyofwhichpresupposesomething-certaincentralaspectsaboutPlato'smetaphysicalviews.
Thekeypointbehindhismetaphysicsthenwasthethoughtthat,inadditiontotheordinaryempiricalphysicalworldthatwe'reallfamiliarwith,wehavetoposittheexistenceofakindofsecondrealm,inwhichexistthePlatonic--asthey'renowadayscalled--thePlatonicformsorPlatonicideas.Thesortofthingthatperhapswemightcallorthinkofasabstractobjectsorabstractproperties.Andthereasonforpositingthesethingsisbecausewe'reclearlyabletothinkabouttheseideas,andyet,werecognizethattheordinaryphysicalworld--althoughthingsmayparticipateinthemtovaryingdegrees--wedon'tactuallycomeacrosstheseobjectsorentitiesinthephysicalworld.Sothatwecantalkaboutthingsbeingbeautifultovaryingdegrees,butwenevercomeacrossbeautyitselfintheactualempiricalworld.Weareabletotalkaboutthefactthattwoplusoneequalsthree,butit'snotasthoughweevercomeacrossnumbers--numberthreeitself--anywhereintheempiricalworld.
Afurtherpointthatdistinguishestheempiricalworldfromthis--thisrealmofPlatonicidealobjects--isthatindeedthey--there'ssomethingperfectaboutthem.Theydon'tchange.Incontrast,physicalobjectsareconstantlychanging.Somethingmightbeshortatonepointandbecometallatanotherpoint,uglyatonepointandbecomebeautiful--liketheuglyduckling.Itstartsoutuglyandbecomesabeautifulswan.Incontrast,justiceitselfneverchanges.Beautyitselfneverchanges.Wehavethethoughtthatthesethingsareeternal,andindeed,beyondchange,incontrasttotheempiricalworld.Infact,ifyoustartthinkingmoreabouttheworldfromthisperspective,theworldweliveiniscrazy.It'salmostinsanelycontradictory.
Platothinksofitascrazyinthewaythatadreamis.Whenyou'recaughtupinthedream,youdon'tnoticejusthowinsaneitallis.Butifyoustepbackandreflectonit,"Well,let'ssee,IwaseatingasandwichandsuddenlythesandwichwastheStatueofLiberty,excepttheStatueofLibertywasmymother.Andshe'sflyingovertheocean,exceptshe'sreallyapieceofspaghetti."That'showdreamsare.Andwhenyou'reinit,itsortofallmakessense.Right?
You'rekindofcaughtup,butyoustepbackandsay,"That'sjustinsane."Well,Platothinksthattheempiricalworldhassomethingofthatkindofinsanity,somethingofthatkindcontradictoriness,builtintoitthatwedon'tordinarilynotice."He'sabasketballplayer,sohe'sreally,reallytall,excepthe'sonlysixfeet.Sohe'sreally,reallyshortfora
basketballplayer.Thisisababyelephant,soit'sreally,reallybig--exceptit'sababyelephant,soit'sreally,reallysmall."
Theworldisconstantlyrolling--thisisaPlatonicexpression-rollingbetweenoneformandtheother.Andit'shardtomakesenseof.Incontrast,themindisabletograspthePlatonicideas,thePlatonicforms;andthey'restable,they'rereliable,theyare--they'relaw-likeandwecangraspthem.Theydon'tchange;they'reeternal.That's,asIsay,thePlatonicpicture.
Now,it'snotmypurposeheretotrytoarguefororagainstPlatonismwithregardtoabstractentities.AsIsuggestedintalkingabouttheexampleofmathlasttime,it'snotasillyview,evenifit'snotaviewthatwealltakeautomatically.Butinthinkingaboutmath,mostofusareinclinedtobePlatonists.Wealldobelievesomethingmakesittruethattwoplusoneequalsthree,butit'snotthefactthatempiricalobjects--Wedon'tdoempiricalexperimentstoseewhethertwoplusoneequalsthree.Rather,wethinkourmindcangraspthetruthsaboutnumbers.Platothoughteverythingwaslikethat.Well,I'mnotgoingtoargueforandagainstthatview--justwantedtosketchit,soastounderstandtheargumentsthatturnonit.
Soforourpurposes,let'ssupposePlatowasrightaboutthatandask,whatfollows?
Well,Platothinkswhat'sgoingtofollowisthatwehavesomereasontobelieveintheimmortalityofthesoulas,again,asweindicatedlasttime,thepictureisthatthemind--thesoul--isabletograsptheseeternalPlatonicforms,theideas.Typically,we'redistractedfromthinkingaboutthembythedistractionsprovidedbythebody--thedesireforfood,drink,sex,whathaveyou,sleep.Butbydistancingitselffromthebody,themind,thesoul,isabletobetterconcentrateontheforms.Andifyou'regoodatthat,ifyoupracticewhileyou'realive,separatingyourselffromthebody,thenwhenyourbodydies,themindisabletogouptothisPlatonicheavenlyrealmandcommunewithgodsandotherimmortalsoulsandthinkabouttheforms.Butifyou'venotseparatedyourselffromthebodywhileinlife,ifyou'retooenmeshedinitsconcerns,thenuponthedeathofyourbodyyoursoulwillgetsuckedbackin,reincarnatedperhaps,inanotherbody.Ifyou'relucky,asanotherperson;ifyou'renotsolucky,asapigoradonkeyoranantorwhathaveyou.
Soyourgoal,Platosays,yourgoalshouldbe,inlife,topracticedeath--toseparateyourselffromyourbody.Andbecauseofthis,Socrates,who'sfacingdeath,isn'tdistressedattheprospect,buthappy.He'shappythatthefinalseparationwilltakeplaceandhe'llbeabletogotoheaven.
Thedialogueends,ofcourse,withthedeathscene--SocrateshasbeencondemnedtodeathbytheAthenians,anditendswithhisdrinkingthehemlock,notdistressedbutrathersortofjoyful.AndthedialogueendswithoneofthegreatmovingdeathscenesinwesterncivilizationandasPlatosays--let'sgetthequotehereexactlyright--"Ofallthosewehaveknown,hewasthebestandalsothewisestandthemost
upright."
Justbeforethedeathscene,there'salongmyth,whichIdrawyourattentiontobutIdon'twanttodiscussinanykindofdetail.Platosaysit'sastory;it'samyth.He'stryingtoindicatethattherearethingsthatwecan'treallyknowinascientificwaybutwecanglimpse.AndthemythhastodowiththesesortofpicturesIwasjustdescribingwherewedon'tactuallyliveonthesurfaceoftheEarthofinthelight,butratherliveincertainhollowsinthedarkwherewe'remistakenaboutthenatureofreality.SomeofyouwhoaremaybefamiliarwithPlato'slaterdialogueTheRepublicmayrecognizeatleastwhatseemstome,whatwehavehere,isaforeshadowingofthemythofthecave,ortheallegoryofthecave,whichPlatodescribesthereaswell.
Ourconcernisgoingtobetheargumentsthatmakeupthecenterofthedialogue.Becauseinthecenterofthedialogue,beforehedies,Socratesisarguingwithhisfriends.Socratesissaying,"Look,I'mnotworried.I'mgoingtoliveforever."Andhisdisciplesandfriendsareworriedwhetherthisistrueornot.AndsotheheartofthedialogueconsistsofaseriesofargumentsinwhichSocratesattemptstolayouthisreasonsforbelievingintheimmortalityofthesoul.Andthat'sgoingtobeourconcern.WhatI'mgoingtodoisbasicallyrunthroughmyattempttoreconstruct--myattempttolayoutthebasicideasfromthisseriesoffourorfiveargumentsthatPlatogivesus.I'mgoingtocriticizethem.Idon'tthinktheywork,thoughIwanttoremarkbeforeIturntothemthatinsayingthisI'mnotnecessarilycriticizingPlato.Aswe'llsee,someofthelaterargumentsseemtobedeliberatelyaimedatansweringobjectionsthatwecanraisetosomeoftheearlierarguments.AndsoitmightwellbethatPlatohimselfrecognizedthattheinitialargumentsaren'tasstrongastheyneedtobe.
Platowrotethedialoguesasakindoflearningdevice,asatooltohelpthereadergetbetteratdoingphilosophy.Theydon'tnecessarilyrepresentinasystematicfashionPlato'sworkedoutaxiomaticviewsaboutthenatureofphilosophy.ItcouldbethatPlato'sdeliberatelyputtingmistakesinearlierargumentssoastoencourageyoutothinkforyourself,"Oh,thisis--here'saproblemwiththisargument.There'sanobjectionwiththatargument."Someofthese,Platothenmayaddresslateron.Butwhetherornothedoesaddressthem--we'renotdoingPlatoanyhonor,we'renotdoinghimanyservice,ifwelimitourselvestosimplytryingtograsp,here'swhatPlatothought.Wecoulddothehistoryofideasandsay,"Here'sPlato'sviews.Aren'ttheyinteresting?
NoticehowtheydifferfromAristotle'sviews.Aren'ttheyinteresting?
"andmoveonlikethat.Butthat'snotwhatthephilosopherswantedustodo.Thegreatphilosophershadargumentsthattheywereputtingforwardtotrytopersuadeusofthetruthsoftheirpositions.Andthewayyoushowrespectforaphilosopherisbytakingthoseargumentsseriouslyandaskingyourself,dotheyworkornot?
SowhetherornottheviewsthatarebeingputforwardinSocrates'moutharetheconsidered,reflectivejudgmentsofPlatoornot,forourpurposeswecanjustactasthoughtheyweretheargumentsbeingputforwardbyPlato,andwecanaskourselves,"Dotheseargumentsworkordon'tthey?
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SoI'mgoingtorunthroughaseriesofthesearguments.I'mgoingto,asI'vementionedbefore,beabitmoreexegeticalthanisnormallythecaseforourreadings.I'mgoingtoactuallypause,periodicallylookatmynotesandmakesureI'mrememberinghowIthinkPla
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