Linguistics语言学归纳.docx

Linguistics语言学归纳.docx

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Linguistics语言学归纳

Linguistics

1.Thescopeoflinguistics:

（abranchoflinguisticsthat….）

phonetics（语音学）:

thestudyoflinguisticspeechsounds,howtheyareproduced,howtheyareperceived,andtheirphysicalproperties.（studyofthephonicmediumoflanguage）

phonology:

（音位学）thestudyofhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticscommunication.

morphology:

（形态学）thestudyofthewordstructureandwordformation.

syntax:

（句法学）isthebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

semantics:

（语义学）thestudyoflinguisticmeaning.

pragmatics:

（语用学）abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiesthecontextoflanguageusetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

Somedistinctionsinlinguistics:

1）Prescriptive&descriptive

Prescriptive:

aimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse

Descriptive:

aimstolaydownrulesfor“correct&standard”behaviorinusinglanguage.（doctor）

2）Synchronic&diachronic共时的&历时的

Synchronic:

thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.

Diachronic:

thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.

3）Langue&parole语言&言语

Langue:

referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.

Parole:

referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.

4）Competence&performance语言能力&语言运用

Competence:

theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

Performance:

theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

Designfeaturesoflanguage:

1）arbitrariness:

（任意性）meansthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

2）Productivity:

itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.

3）Duality:

（双重性）dualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.

4）Displacement:

languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.不受时空限制

5）Culturaltransmission文化传播（eg:

狼孩）

2.Functionsoflanguage:

1）Descriptivefunction:

itisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinformation,whichcanbeassertedordenied,andinsomecasesevenverified.

2）Expressivefunction:

suppliesinformationabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudicesandvalues.

3）Socialfunction:

servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.

Phone:

（音素）isaphoneticunitorsegment.

Phoneme:

（音位）isaphonologicalunit.Itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.

3.Morphemes词素—theminimalunitsofmeaning

Thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcarriesinformationaboutmeaningorfunction

Freemorpheme:

amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitself.

Boundmorpheme:

amorphememustbeattachedtoanotherone.

Derivationalmorphemes：

（衍生词素）themorphemeswhichchangethecategoryorgrammaticalclassofwords.Theyareconjoinedtoothermorphemes/words,newwordsarederivedorformed.（-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er）标出

Inflectionalmorphemes:

（曲折词素）theyareattachedtowordsormorphemes,buttheyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory.（-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing）○标出

4.Category:

referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphaseoraverb.

Non-traditionalcategories:

determiner（Det）限定词,degree（Deg）,qualifier（Qua）

Phraseelements :

specifiers,complements（XPRule）,modifiers.

Deepstructure:

formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.没变形陈述句

Surfacestructure

5.Lexicalmeaning:

Sense:

isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures;itisabstractandde-contextualized.

Eg:

dog-generalmeaningofdog,features

Reference:

meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.

Eg；Oneparticular/certaindogexistentinthesituation,knowntoeachother

6.

Context:

itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.（JohnFirth）

Speechacttheory:

（JohnAustin）

Locutionaryact:

（言内行为）istheactofutteringwords,phrasesandclauses.

Illocutionaryact:

（言外之意）istheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactofperformedinsayingsomething.

Perlocutionaryact:

（言后行为）istheactofperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

Cooperativeprinciple-CP（PaulGrice）

Themaximofquantity:

Saynolessthantheconversationrequires.

Saynomorethantheconversationrequires.

Themaximofquality:

Don'tsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

Don'tsaythingsforwhichyoulackevidence.

Themaximofmanner:

Don'tbeobscure.Don'tbeambiguous.

Bebrief.Beorderly.

Themaximofrelevance:

Berelevant.

7.Languagechange

Additionofnewwords:

1）Coinage:

创新词

Spywaredigitalcameracybercitizenmousepotato

2）Clippedwords:

缩略词

Lab-laboratorygym-gymnasiumfridge-refrigeratorburger-hamburger

3）Blending:

紧缩法

Smog-smoke+fogbrunch-breakfast+lunchcamcorder-camera+recorder

4）Acronyms:

首字母缩略词

CEO-chiefexecutiveofficerIT-informationtechnology

EUVIPB2BCPI

5）Back-formation:

逆构词法

Toedit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate

6）Functionshift

n.-v.Toknee/bug/tapev.-n.ahold/reject/retreat

adj.-v.tocool/narrow/dim/slow

7）Borrowing

Bonustragedyskirteducationcycleprinceguitarbalcony

Balloonoperapumpteatofukowtowsampanzero

Kungfumahjongspaghettibizarregarage

8）Derivation派生词

Fixablerefusalexcitingimpressivedislikerestateanti-pollutionunfairrealizehappiness

9）Compounds复合词

Bittersweetrainbowspoonfeedsleepwalkinbornoff-license

Undertakewithoutlandladyhandoverwhitewash

8.Register语域

Fieldofdiscourse话语范围:

referstowhatisgoingon:

ontheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.

Tenorofdiscourse话语基调:

referstotheroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:

whotheparticipantsinthecommunicationgroupsareandwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.

Modeofdiscourse话语方式:

referstothemeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwith“how”communicationiscarriedout.

9.Sapir-whorfhypothesis（SWH）萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说

Languagefilterspeople’sperceptionangthewaytheycategorizetheirexperiences.

10.LanguageAcquisition

Theoriesofchildlanguageacquisition:

1）Thebehaviorist

Imitationandpracticearepreliminary,anddiscriminationandgeneralizationarecrucialtolanguagedevelopment.（habit-forming）

Butitfailstoexplainhowchildrenacquiremorecomplexgrammaticalstructuresofthelanguage.

2）Theinnatist

LanguageAcquisitiondevice（LAD）Chomsky

Itproposedthathumanbeingsarebornwithaninnateability.

Itsaidthatthe“theblackbox”containprinciplesthatareuniversaltoallhumanlanguage.

UniversalGrammar（UG）

3）Theinteractionist

Itholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichhegrows.motheresechilddirectedspeech（CDS）caretakertalk

CriticalPeriodHypothesis（CPH）EricLenneberg

LADworkssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime—aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.

Twoversions:

Strongonesuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.

Theweakholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.

11.SecondLanguageAcquisition

Positivetransfer正迁移facilitate

Negativetransfer负迁移interfereorhinder

Interlanguage中介语

Itwasestablishedaslearners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguage,whichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromoneextremeofhisnativelanguagetotheotherofthesecondlanguage.

Fossilization石化现象

Itisaprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.

Acquisition习得

Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.

Learning学习

Itreferstoconsciouseffortstolearnthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.