新世纪研究生公共英语教材B 11 13单元.docx

新世纪研究生公共英语教材B 11 13单元.docx

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新世纪研究生公共英语教材B1113单元

B:

第九单元

AnimalEmotions

LauraTangley

Sheerjoy.Romanticlove.Thepainofmourning.

Scientistssaypetsandwildcreatureshavefeelings,too.

1.SwimmingoffthecoastofArgentina,afemalerightwhalesinglesoutjustoneofthesuitorsthatarehotlypursuingher.Aftermating,thetwocetaceanslingersidebyside,strokingoneanotherwiththeirflippersandfinallyrollingtogetherinwhatlookslikeanembrace.Thewhalesthendepart,flipperstouching,andswimslowlysidebyside,divingandsurfacinginperfectunisonuntiltheydisappearfromsight.

2.InTanzania,primatologistsstudyingchimpanzeebehaviorrecordedthedeathofFlo,atroop’s50-year-oldmatriarch.Throughoutthefollowingday,Flo’sson,Flint,sitsbesidehismother’slifelessbody,occasionallytakingherhandandwhimpering.Overthenextfewweeks,Flintgrowsincreasinglylistless,withdrawingfromthetroop—despitehissiblings’effortstobringhimback–andrefusingfood.ThreeweeksafterFlo’sdeath,theformerlyhealthyyoungchimpisdead,too.

3.Agrief-strickenchimpanzee?

Leviathansinlove?

Mostpeople,raisedonDisneyversionsofsentientandpassionatebeasts,wouldsaythatthesetales,bothtrue,simplyconfirmtheirsuspicionsthatanimalscanfeelintense,humanlikeemotions.Fortheirpart,thenation’s61millionpetownersneednoconvincingatallthatpetdogsandcatscanfeelangry,morose,elated—evenjealousorembarrassed.Recentstudies,infieldsasdistantasethologyandneurobiology,aresupportingthispopularbelief.Otherevidenceismerelyanecdotal,especiallyforpets—dogsthatbecomedepressed,orevendie,afterlosingabelovedcompanion,forinstance.Buttheanecdote—orcasestudyinscientificparlance—hasnowachievedsomerespectabilityamongresearcherswhostudyanimalbehavior.AsUniversityofColoradobiologistMarcBekoffsays,“Thepluralofanecdoteisdata.”

4.Still,theideaofanimalsfeelingemotionsremainscontroversialamongmanyscientists.Researchers’skepticismisfueledinpartbytheirprofessionalaversiontoanthropomorphism,theverynonscientifictendencytoattributehumanqualitiestonon-humans.Manyscientistsalsosaythatitisimpossibletoproveanimalshaveemotionsusingstandardscientificmethods—repeatableobservationsthatcanbemanipulatedincontrolledexperiments—leadingthemtoconcludethatsuchfeelingsmustnotexist.Today,however,amidmountingevidencetothecontrary,“thetideisturningradicallyandrapidly,”saysBekoff,whoisattheforefrontofthismovement.

5.Eventhemoststridentskepticsofanimalpassionagreethatmanycreaturesexperiencefear—whichsomescientistsdefineasa“primary”emotionthatcontrastswith“secondary”emotionssuchasloveandgrief.Unlikethesemorecomplexfeelings,fearisinstinctive,theysay,andrequiresnoconsciousthought.Essentialtoescapepredatorsandotherdangers,fear—anditspredictableflight,fight,orfreezeresponses—seemstobehard-wiredintomanyspecies.Younggeesethathaveneverbeforeseenapredator,forexample,willrunforcoverifahawk-shapedsilhouettepassesoverhead.Theshapeofanonpredatorybird,ontheotherhand,elicitsnosuchresponse.

6.Butbeyondsuchinstinctualemotionsandtheirpredictablebehavioralresponses,thepossibilityofmorecomplexanimalfeelings—thosethatentailmentalprocessing—isdifficulttodemonstrate.“Ican’tevenprovethatanotherhumanbeingisfeelinghappyorsad,”saysBekoff,“butIcandeducehowthey’refeelingthroughbodylanguageandfacialexpression.”Asascientistwhohasconductedfieldstudiesofcoyotes,foxes,andothercaninesforthepastthreedecades,Bekoffalsobelieveshecanaccuratelytellwhattheseanimalsarefeelingbyobservingtheirbehavior.Headdsthatanimalemotionsmayactuallybemoreknowablethanthoseofhumans,becausetheydon’t“filter”theirfeelingsthewaywedo.

7.Yetbecausefeelingsareintangible,andsotoughtostudyscientifically,“mostresearchersdon’tevenwanttotalkaboutanimalemotions,”saysJaakPanksepp,aneuroscientistatBowlingGreenStateUniversityinOhioandauthorofAffectiveNeuroscience.Withinhisfield,Pankseppisarareexception,whobelievesthatsimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimalssuggestthatatleastsomecreatureshavetruefeelings.“Imaginewherewe’dbeinphysicsifwehadn’tinferredwhat’sinsidetheatom,”saysPanksepp.“Mostofwhatgoesoninnatureisinvisible,yetwedon’tdenythatitexists.”

8.Thenewcaseforanimalemotionscomesinpartfromthegrowingacceptabilityoffieldobservations,particularlywhentheyaretakeninaggregate.Thelatestcontributiontothisbodyofknowledgeisanewbook,TheSmileofaDolphin,whichpresentspersonalreportsfrommorethan50researcherswhohavespenttheircareersstudyinganimals—fromcats,dogs,bears,andchimpstobirds,iguanas,andfish.EditedbyBekoff,whosaysitwillfinally“legitimize”researchonanimalemotions,thevolumehasalreadygarneredscientificattention,includingaSmithsonianInstitutionsymposiumonthesubject.

9.Oneofthemostobviousanimalemotionsispleasure.Anyonewhohaseverheldapurringcatorbeengreetedbyabounding,barking,tail-waggingdogknowsthatanimalsoftenappeartobehappy.Beastlyjoyseemsparticularlyapparentwhentheanimalsareplayingwithoneanotherorsometimes,inthecaseofpets,withpeople.

10.Virtuallyallyoungmammals,aswellassomebirds,play,asdoadultsofmanyspeciessuchasourown.Youngdolphins,forinstance,routinelychaseeachotherthroughthewaterlikefrolicsomepuppiesandhavebeenobservedridingthewakesofboatslikesurfers.PrimatologistJaneGoodall,whohasstudiedchimpanzeesinTanzaniaforfourdecades,saysthatchimps“chase,somersault,andpirouettearoundoneanotherwiththeabandonofchildren.”InColorado,Bekoffoncewatchedanelkracebackandforthacrossapatchofsnow—eventhoughtherewasplentyofbaregrassnearby—leapingandtwistingitsbodyinmidaironeachpass.Thoughrecentresearchsuggeststhatplaymayhelpyoungstersdevelopskillsneededinadulthood,Bekoffsaysthere’snoquestionthatit’salsofun.“Animalsatplayaresymbolsoftheunfetteredjoyoflife,”hesays

11.Griefalsoseemstobecommoninthewild,particularlyfollowingthedeathofamate,parent,offspring,orevenclosecompanion.Femalesealionswitnessingtheirpupsbeingeatenbykillerwhalesareknowntoactuallywail.Whenagoose,whichmatesforlife,losesitspartner,thebird’sheadandbodydroopdejectedly.Goodall,whosawtheyoungchimpFlintstarveafterhismotherdied,maintainsthattheanimal“diedofgrief.”

12.Elephantsmaybenature’sbest-knownmourners.Scientistsstudyingthesebehemothshavereportedcountlesscasesofelephantstryingtorevivedeadordyingfamilymembers,aswellasstandingquietlybesideananimal’sremainsformanydays,periodicallyreachingoutandtouchingthebodywiththeirtrunks.KenyanbiologistJoycePoole,whohasstudiedAfricanelephantssince1976,saystheseanimals’behaviortowardtheirdead“leavesmewithlittledoubtthattheyexperiencedeepemotionsandhavesomeunderstandingaboutdeath.”

13.Butthere’s“hard”scientificevidenceforanimalfeelingsaswell.Scientistswhostudythebiologyofemotions,afieldstillinitsinfancy,arediscoveringmanysimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimals.Inanimalsstudiedsofar,includinghumans,emotionsseemtoarisefromancientpartsofthebrainthatarelocatedbelowthecortex,regionsthathavebeenconservedacrossmanyspeciesthroughoutevolution.

14.Themostimportantemotionalsiteidentifiedsofaristheamygdala,analmond-shapestructureinthecenterofthebrain.Workingwithrats,neuroscientistshavediscoveredthatstimulatingacertainpartoftheamygdalainducesastateofintensefear.Ratswithdamagedamygdalas,ontheotherhand,donotshownormalbehavioralresponsestodanger（suchasfreezingorrunning）orthephysiologicalchangesassociatedwithfear—higherheartrateandbloodpressure,forexample.

15.Inhumans,brain-imagingstudiesshowthatwhenpeopleexperiencefear,theiramygdalas,too,areactivated.Andjustliketherats,peoplewhoseamygdalasaredamagedbyaccidentordiseaseseemunabletobeafraidwhenthesituationwarrantsit.Inhumansandrats,atleast,amygdalasare“basicallywiredthesameway,”saysNewYorkUniversityneuroscientistJosephLeDoux,whoselabconductedmuchoftheratresearch.Headdsthatbeyondfear,“theevidenceislessclear,buttheamygdalaisimplicatedinotheremotionsaswell.”

16.Thecaseforanimalemotionsisalsobolsteredbyrecentstudiesofbrainchemistry.StevenSiviy,abehavioralneuroscientistatGettysburgCollegeinPennsylvania,hasfoundthatwhenratsplay,theirbrainsreleasecopiousamountsofdopamine,aneurochemicalthatisassociatedwithpleasureandexcitementinhumans.Inoneexperiment,Siviyplacedpairsofratsinadistinctiveplexiglasschamberandallowedthemtoplay.Afteraweek,hecouldputoneanimalaloneinthechamberand,anticipatingitsupcomingplaysession,itwouldbecome“veryactive,vocalizing,andpacingbackandforthwithexcitement.”ButwhenSiviygavethesameanimaladrugthatblocksdopamine,allsuchactivitycametoahalt.NeuroscientistPanksepphasfoundevidencethatratsatplayalsoproduceopiates–chemicalsthat,likedopamine,arethoughttobeinvolvedwithpleasureinpeople.

17.Anotherchemical,thehormoneoxytocin,isassociatedwithbothsexualactivityandmaternalbondinginpeople.Itisreleased,forexample,whenmothersarenursingt