语言学概论杨忠.docx

语言学概论杨忠.docx

《语言学概论杨忠.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《语言学概论杨忠.docx（13页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

语言学概论杨忠

1.Whatarethecategoriesoflexicalmeaning?

Lexicalmeaningineludes:

a）referentialmeaning（alsodenotativemeaning）.b）Associative

meanings.Referentialmeaningisthecentralmeaninganditismorestableanduniversal.

Associativemeaningsaremeaningsaremeaningsthathingeonreferentialmeaning,which

arelessstableandmoreculture-specific.

Typesofassociativemeanings:

connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,

reflectedmeaning,collectivemeaning

2.Whatarethecomponentsofmetaphor?

Therearetwopositionsonthefunctionofmetaphors:

a）theclassicalviewseesmetaphora

rhetoricaldevice;b）anotherviewholdsmetaphoracognitivedevice.Metaphors一spossiblepreciselybecausetherearemetaphorsinapersonualsystems.'sconcept

Allmetaphorsarecomposedoftwodomains:

targetdomain（alsotenor）andsourcedomain

（vehicle）.

3.Howdoestransformationalgrammaraccountforsentence-relatedness?

1）AccordingtoChomsky,agrammarasthetacitsharedknowledgeofallspeakersisasystemoffiniterulesbywhichaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbegenerated.Heattemptstoaccountforthisaspectofsyntaxbypostulatingthatdeepstructuresandsurfacestructures.

2）Deepstructuresarethebasicstructuresgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.

3）Surfacestructuresarederivedstructures,thestructuresofsentencesthatweactually

speak.Surfacestructuresarederivedfromdeepstructuresthroughtransformationalruleswhichincludereplacement,insertion,deletionandcoping,etc.

4.OnwhatbasisdolinguistsregardhumanIanguageasspecies-specific（uniqueto

humans）?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Manyphilosophersandlinguistsbelievethatlanguageisuniquetoman.Languageisahumantraitthatsetsusapartfromotherlivingcreatures.TheyspelloutanumberoffeaturesofIanguagewhicharenotfoundinanimalcommunicationsystems.Thesefeatures:

creativity,duality,arbitrariness,displacement,culturaltransmission,interchangeabilityand

reflexivity.TheseareuniversalfeaturespossessedbyallhumanIanguages.Althoughsomeanimalcommunicationsystemspossess,toaverylimiteddegree,oneoranotherofthesefeaturesexceptcreativityandduality,noneisfoundtohaveallthefeatures.OnthisbasislinguiststendtoconcludethathumanIanguagesarequalitativelydifferentformanimalcommunicationsystems.

5.Whatpartofsyntaxcanphrasestructurerulesaccountforandwhattheycannot?

Phrasestructurerulesarerulesthatspecifytheconstituentsofsyntacticcategories.

Theserulesarepartofspeakers'syntacticknowledge,whichgoverntheconstructionof

sentences.

Therearealotofpartofsyntacticknowledge,includingstructuralambiguity（whichstringsofwordshavemorethanonemeaning）,wordsorder（differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings）,grammaticalrelations（whatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly）,recursion（therepeateduseofthesamerulestocreate

infinitesentences）,sentencerelatedness（sentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated）,andsyntacticcategories（aclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality）etc.Phrasestructurerulescanaccountforstructuralambiguity,wordorder,grammaticalrelations,recursion,andsyntacticcategories;buttheycannotaccountforsentencerelatedness.

6.HowdosociolinguistsclassifythevarietiesofEnglish?

ThetermvarietyisthelabelgiventotheformofaIanguageusedbyanygroupofspeakers

orusedinaparticularfield.Avarietyischaracterizedbythebasiclexicon,phonology,syntaxsharedbymembersofthegroup.VarietiesofaIanguageareoffourtypes:

thestandardvariety,regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.

AregionaldialectisavarietyofaIanguagespokenbypeoplelivinginanarea.TheEnglish

Ianguagehasmanyregionaldialects.BritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglish.

IndianEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,etc.areallregionalvarietiesoftheIanguage.One

dialectisdistinctivefromanotherphonologically,lexicallyandgrammatically.

7.Whatarethefunctionsofsupra-segmentalfeatures?

Thephoneticfeatures,distinctiveornon-distinctive,thatwehavediscussedsofarmaybepropertiesofsinglesegments.Inthissectionwewilllookatfeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorsequeneeoftwoormoresegments,whicharecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.

Thesefeaturesarealsodistinctivefeatures.Theyarefoundinsuchunitsofsyllables,words,phrasesandsentences.Themostwidelyfoundsuprasegmentalfeaturesarestress,intonationandtone.

Stressisdefinedastheperceivedprominence（comparativeloudness）ofoneormoresyllableelementsoverothersinaword.Thisdefinitionimpliesthatstressisarelativenotion.Intonation:

whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.The

samesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthe

speaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:

fall,riseandfall-rise.Toneis

thevariationofpitchatthewordleveltodistinguishwords.Thesamesequeneeof

segmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Englishisnotatone

Ianguage.ChineseisatypicaltoneIanguage.

Intonationandstressgenerallyoccursimultaneouslyinutteranee.Whenintonationcontourfallsonasyllable,thenucleusisstressedandthevowelisnaturallylengthenedabit.Inthemeantime,thereisalittlepauseafterthesyllable.Thissimultaneousfunctioningofthefeaturesservestohighlighttheinformationfocus,ortoeliminateambiguity（double

interpretationsofthesamephraseorsentence）.

8.Whatareaspectsofsyntacticknowledge?

Syntacticknowledgeistheknowingofwhichstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhicharenot.Inaddition,itincludes:

1）structuralambiguity2）wordorder3）grammaticalrelations4）recursion5）sentencerelatedness6）syntacticcategories.

9.Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcomponentialanalysis?

1st,itisabreakthroughintheformalrepresentationofmeaning.Onceformally

represented,meaningcomponentscanbeseen.2nd,itrevealstheimprecisenessofthe

terminologyinthetraditionalapproachtomeaninganalysis.Lookingatthesemanticformulaofmanandwomanagainyoucanseethatitisnottruethatthetotalmeaningofonewordcontrastswiththatoftheother.Itismerelyinonesemanticfeaturethatthetwowordscontrast.Whenwelookatthesemanticformulaeofmanandfather,wefindthatallthesemanticfeaturesofmanareincludedinthesemanticformulaoffather.Thenwereachadifferentconclusionfromcommonsenseinregardtotherelationbetweenmanandfather.

Isthiscontradictory?

TheanswerisNo.Theobviousfactthatmanincludesfatherisderivedfromtheperspectiveofreferenee.Componentialanalysisexaminesthecomponentsofsense.Themoresemanticfeaturesawordhas,thenarroweritsrefereneeitis.

Thelimitationsofcomponentialanalysisarealsoapparent.Itcannotbeappliedtotheanalysisofalllexicon,merelytowordswithinthesamesemanticfield.ItiscontroversialwhethersemanticfeaturesareuniversalprimesofwordmeaningsinallIanguage.

Nevertheless,CAissofaramostinfluentialapproachinthestructuralanalysisoflexicalmeaning.

11.Whyislinguisticsavastfieldofstudy?

Linguisticsisabroadfieldofstudy,becauseIanguageisacomplicatedentitywithmanylayersandfacets.Thereareanumberofdivisionsoflinguistics,whichcanbeputintotwocategories.1）Intra-disciplinarydivisions:

thestudyofIanguageingeneralisoftentermedgenerallinguistics.ItisbasedontheviewthatIanguageasasystemiscomposedofthreeaspects:

sound,structureandmeaning.2）Inter-disciplinarydivisions.a）Sociologydeals

withIanguageandculture.b）PsycholinguisticsdealswiththerelationbetweenIanguageandmindc）appliedlinguisticsisconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheoriesanddescriptionsinotherfields.Allabovethreebelongtosociolinguistics.

12.Howislinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

1）Traditionalgrammarisprescriptiveandmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.

2）TraditionalgrammaticalcategoriesaremerelybasedonEuropeanIanguagebutlinguisticstudiesalllanguages.

3）Traditionalgrammarlacksatheoreticalframework,whilemodernlinguisticsistheoreticallyratherthanpedagogicallyoriented.

13.Howarespeechsoundsdescribed?

Thestudyofspeechsoundsisphoneticswhichincludes3parts:

1）articulatoryphonetics2）acousticphonetics3）auditoryphonetics.Articulatoryphoneticsistheprimaryconcernin

linguistics,inwhichspeechsoundisdescribedwithin3sides:

Thedescriptionofconsonants:

a）placeofarticulationb）mannersofarticulationc）voicingd）

aspiration

Thedescriptionofvowels:

a）monophthongsb）diphthongsc）liproundingd）tensity

14.Differeneebetweenlinguisticcompeteneeandcommunicativecompetenee

1）LinguistslikeChomskywhoarenotconcernedwithIanguageuseproposetheterm

linguisticcompeteneetoaccountforaspeaker'sknowledgeofhisorherlangu

2）SociolinguistslikeDellHymesproposecommunicativecompeteneeasthemostgeneral

termtoaccountforboththetacitknowledgeofIanguageandtheabilitytouseit.According

toHymes,th