The Crime of Homicide.docx

The Crime of Homicide.docx

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TheCrimeofHomicide

TheCrimeofHomicideP73故意杀人罪

Homicideisthekillingofonehumanbeing（人类）byanotherhumanbeing.Notallhomicidesarecriminal,however.Forinstance（例如）,apersonwhokillsanotherinself-defensehascommittednocrime;itisjustifiablehomicide.Thesameistrueofthepoliceofficerwhokillsapersontopreventthecommissionofaforciblefelony,suchasrobberyorburglary,whenthekillingisareasonablynecessarypreventivemeasure;orwhentheofficerkillsadangerousfeloninordertopreventhisescape.Then,too,somekillingsareexcusablehomicides;forinstance,whereapersonaccidentally,andwithoutgrossnegligence,causesthedeathofanotherindividual.

Akillingamountstoacriminalhomicidewhenitisdonewithoutlawfuljustificationorexcuse.Dependinguponcertaincircumstancesitmaybeeithermurderormanslaughter.

Intheearlydaysofourcountry,andpriortheretoinEngland,theelementsofthecrimesofmurderandmanslaughterwereprescribedbycourtdecisions.Thesedecisionscametobeknownasthe“commonlaw”.Sincethen,inmostjurisdictionsmurderandmanslaughterhavebeenredefinedbythelegislatives,eitherintheformofaseparatestatuteorasaprovisionfoacriminalcode.

PartOneMurder

Accordingtobecommonlaw,murderwasthekillingofahumanbeing“malice”,andtherequirementof“malice”isstillfoundinsomepresent-daystatutesandcodes.TheCaliforniaPenalCode,forinstance,hasretainedit.Thatcodeprovides,asdidthecommonlaw,that.

“...Malicemaybeexpressorimplied.Itisexpresswhenthereismanifestedadeliberateintentiontotakeawaythelifeofafellowcreature.Itisimplied,whennoconsiderableprovocationappears,orwhenthecircumstancesattendingthekillingshowanabandonedandmalignantheart”

Aclearillustrationofexpressmaliceisacasewhereonepersonintentionallypushesanotheroffthesideofamountain.Anexampleofimpliedmaliceiswhereapersonfiresarifleatamovingpassengertrain,just”toscare”thepersonaboardortodisplayskillatfiringabulletbetweenthecarswithouthittinganyone.Thedangerousnessoftheconductwouldbeevidenceof“malice”asregardsanykillingthatmaybereasonablyattributedtosuchconduct.Itwouldindicate,toaCaliforniacourttojury,“anabandonedandmalignantheart”.

Thepenaltyformurderispunishablebydeathinsomestates;inothersbyprisontermsextendingto“life”oraspecifiednumberofyears.

（a）Felony-Murder

Anotherexampleofasatisfactionoftheelementofmaliceisakillingduringthecourseofafelonysuchasrobbery.Eventhougharobber’sgungoesoffaccidentally,killingtherobberyvictim,orabystander,orapoliceofficer,hisconductofcommittingsuchadangerouscrimeasrobberysatisfiestherequirementofmalicesothatkillingbecomespunishableasmurder.Asimilarlineofreasoninghasresultedinholdingco-felonsguiltyofmurderwhere,inthecourseofanexchangeofshotsbetweenrobbersandthepolice,apoliceofficerisaccidentallykilledbyanotherofficer.

Malicemayalsobeattributedtoarobberwhosepartnerinthecrimeintentionallykillssomeoneduringthecommissionofthecrimeortheattemptedescape.Maliceonthepartofallparticipantsisimpliedfromthedangerousnessoftherobberyitself;moreover,eachrobberisconsideredtoactasanagentfortheothersinaccomplishingtheirobjective,includingtheattempttoescape.

Thiswholeissueoffelony-murderstemsprimarilyfromtheprosecution’sinterestseekingthedeathpenaltyforsuchkillings.Insomeofthestateswhichhaveabolishedcapitalpunishment（Wisconsin,forexample）,thelegislatures,outofanunderstandabledesiretopunishrobbersmoreseverelywheneverakillingresults,haveprovidedthatpunishmentforsuchoffensesshallbefifteenyearsgreaterthanthatprovidedfornon-fatalrobberies.

（b）DegreesofMurder

Somestateshavespecifiedvaryingpenaltiesformurder,dependinguponthecircumstancesofthekilling.A“willful,deliberateandpremeditated“killing,suchasapoisoningorakillingduringthecommissionofadangerousfelony,maybelabeledfirstdegreemurderandpunishablebydeathorlongimprisonment.Otherformsofmurdermaybeoftheseconddegreeandpunishablewithalesserpenalty.Accordingtothecommonlaw,however,therewerenodegreesofmurder.Anyunlawfulkillingwaseithermurderormanslaughter.

PartTwo:

Manslaughter

Manslaughterwasdefinedatcommonlawasanunlawfulkillingofanotherwithoutmalice.Itcouldbeeithervoluntaryorinvoluntary.

Manslaughter,incontrasttomurder,isusuallypunishablebyaprisontermwhichmayrangefromoneyeartotenorfourteenyears.

（a）VoluntaryManslaughter

Anintentionalkillingupon“greatprovocation“and“intheheatofpassion“constitutesthecrimeofvoluntarymanslaughter.Aclassicexampleisthekillingbyahusband（orwife）whounexpectedlyfindshisorherspouseinanactofsexualintercoursewithanotherperson,orinasituationevidencingimpendingorimmediatelyconcludedadulterousconduct.Killingoftheparamourorofthespouse,orboth,insuchacircumstancewouldfallwithinthecategoryofmanslaughterbecause（a）theprovocationwasgreat,and（b）thekillerwasinthe“heatofpassion“

Akillingofthistypetreatedlessharshlythanmurder,outofconsiderationforthefrailtiesofhumannature.Inotherwords,thereisanunderstandingappreciationthattheinstinctivereactionofthehusband（orwife）ifsuchasituationistokillordootherseriousharm.Nevertheless,thereisafeelingthatsuchconductshouldbediscouragedbyacriminalsanction,butonewithapenaltyconsiderablylessthanforthecrimeofmurder.

Itisofinteresttonotethatinsuchparamourkillingcasestheconvictionrateisquitelow,primarilybecauseofthewillingnessofjuriestoacceptoccasionallythefrequentlyconcoctedexplanationthatthekillingwasdoneinself-defense;inotherwords,theparamourattackedthespouse,whokilledhis“attacker”onlyinordertokeepfrombeingkilledhimself.Theresultofacquittalinsuchcasesissometimesdescribedinthepressasanacquittalbyreasonof“theunwrittenlaw”

Afewstates（Texas,NewMexico,andUtah）havetriedtosimplifythewholematterofparamourkillingsbylegalizingsuchkillingswheretheparamouriscaughtintheact.Butinthosestatestheprivilegedoesnotextendtothekillingoftheparticipatingspouse.

Applyingthetestofwhetheranintentionalkillingwasupongreatprovocationandintheheatofpassion,thequestionisputtothejury,ortothejudgeinnon-jurycases,astowhethertheaccusedreactedasa“reasonableman”.Technicallyspeaking,itisnottheparticularsensitivityortemperifthekillerthatistakenintoconsideration,butratheraneffortismadetodeterminehow,a“reasonableman“mighthaveactedundersimilarcircumstances.AnillustrationofthisisafamousEnglishcasewhereasexuallyimpotentmanfeltinsultedbytheremarksofaprostitutewithwhomhehadtriedinvaintohavesexualintercourse,andheproceededtokillher.Hecontendedthathissensitivityoverhisconditionshouldbetakenintoaccountindeterminingwhethertherewasseriousprovocationforthisreaction,butthecourtheldthathisconductwastobejudgedbythestandardofanordinary,normal“reasonableman“

（b）InvoluntaryManslaughter

Involuntarymanslaughtermaybedescribedgenerallyasanunintentionalkillingresultingfromgrossnegligence,orasaresultofdangerousunlawfulconduct.Forexample,apersonwhothrowsaheavyobjectfromtheupperstoriesofabuildingintoanalleyusedwithsomefrequencybypedestriansmaybeguiltyofmanslaughterifakillingresult.Likewise,amotoristmaycommitmanslaughterifhekillsachildataschoolcrossingwhiletravelingatanexcessivespeed.

Anumberofstateshavecreatedarelatedcrimeknownas“recklesshomicide“or“negligenthomicide”forapplicationtokillingbymotoristswhoweredrivinginarecklessorgrosslynegligentmanner.Thisspecialkindofhomicidelegislationwasenactedbecauseofthedifficultyencounteredinconvictingmotoristsformorerevoltinglylabeledoffenseofmanslaughter（i,e.,theslaughterofaman）,whichalsocarried,traditionally,aminimumpenaltyofoneyearinthepenitentiary.Itwasthoughtadvisabletocategorizesuchconductwiththelessrevoltinglabelofrecklessornegligenthomicideandalsotopermittheimpositionoflesserpenaltiesthantheoneprescribedformanslaughter.Statedanotherway.itisbettertoobtainareasonablenumberofconvictionscarryingrelativelylightpenaltiesthantogetveryfewconvictionscarryheavypenalties.Thepermissiblerangeofpenaltiesinrecklesshomicideornegligenthomicidestatutesisgenerallyafineupto$1,000,orincarcerationotherthaninapenitentiaryforanyperioduptooneyear,orimprisonmentinapenitentiaryuptofiveyears.（Wherethetrafficvictimofsuchconductdoesnotdie.Anothernewstatutoryoffensemaybeinvoked---“recklessconduct”）

Theflexibilityofpenaltiesintrafficdeathcaseshastheeffectofencouragingpleasofguiltyfromoffenders,anditresultsinconvictionsthatmightnotbesecuredifajudgeorjuryhadnochoiceotherthanapenitentiarysentenceoranacquittal.

PartThreeFederalHomicideLaw

Thereisnogeneralfederalhomicidelaw.Therecanbenone,infact,sinceconstitutionalauthorityislackingforCongresstolegislateuponsubject,exceptwithrespecttokillingswithinafederalterritory,infederalbuildingsoruponotherfederalproperty,orkillingsoffed