Instructional design.docx

Instructional design.docx

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Instructionaldesign

Instructionaldesign

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

InstructionalDesign（alsocalledInstructionalSystemsDesign（ISD））isthepracticeofmaximizingtheeffectiveness,efficiencyandappealofinstructionandotherlearningexperiences.Theprocessconsistsbroadlyofdeterminingthecurrentstateandneedsofthelearner,definingtheendgoalofinstruction,andcreatingsome"intervention"toassistinthetransition.Ideallytheprocessisinformedbypedagogically（processofteaching）andandragogically（adultlearning）testedtheoriesoflearningandmaytakeplaceinstudent-only,teacher-ledorcommunity-basedsettings.Theoutcomeofthisinstructionmaybedirectlyobservableandscientificallymeasuredorcompletelyhiddenandassumed.TherearemanyinstructionaldesignmodelsbutmanyarebasedontheADDIEmodelwiththefivephases:

1）analysis,2）design,3）development,4）implementation,and5）evaluation.Asafield,instructionaldesignishistoricallyandtraditionallyrootedincognitiveandbehavioralpsychology.

History

MuchofthefoundationsofthefieldofinstructionaldesignwaslaidinWorldWarII,whentheU.S.militaryfacedtheneedtorapidlytrainlargenumbersofpeopletoperformcomplextechnicaltasks,fromfield-strippingacarbinetonavigatingacrosstheoceantobuildingabomber—see"TrainingWithinIndustry（TWI）".DrawingontheresearchandtheoriesofB.F.Skinneronoperantconditioning,trainingprogramsfocusedonobservablebehaviors.Taskswerebrokendownintosubtasks,andeachsubtasktreatedasaseparatelearninggoal.Trainingwasdesignedtorewardcorrectperformanceandremediateincorrectperformance.Masterywasassumedtobepossibleforeverylearner,givenenoughrepetitionandfeedback.Afterthewar,thesuccessofthewartimetrainingmodelwasreplicatedinbusinessandindustrialtraining,andtoalesserextentintheprimaryandsecondaryclassroom.TheapproachisstillcommonintheU.S.military.[1]

In1956,acommitteeledbyBenjaminBloompublishedaninfluentialtaxonomyofwhathetermedthethreedomainsoflearning:

Cognitive（whatoneknowsorthinks）,Psychomotor（whatonedoes,physically）andAffective（whatonefeels,orwhatattitudesonehas）.Thesetaxonomiesstillinfluencethedesignofinstruction.[2]

Duringthelatterhalfofthe20thcentury,learningtheoriesbegantobeinfluencedbythegrowthofdigitalcomputers.

Inthe1970s,manyinstructionaldesigntheoristsbegantoadoptaninformation-processing-basedapproachtothedesignofinstruction.DavidMerrillforinstancedevelopedComponentDisplayTheory（CDT）,whichconcentratesonthemeansofpresentinginstructionalmaterials（presentationtechniques）.[3]

Laterinthe1980sandthroughoutthe1990scognitiveloadtheorybegantofindempiricalsupportforavarietyofpresentationtechniques.[4]

Cognitiveloadtheoryandthedesignofinstruction

Cognitiveloadtheorydevelopedoutofseveralempiricalstudiesoflearners,astheyinteractedwithinstructionalmaterials.[5]Swellerandhisassociatesbegantomeasuretheeffectsofworkingmemoryload,andfoundthattheformatofinstructionalmaterialshasadirecteffectontheperformanceofthelearnersusingthosematerials.[6][7][8]

Whilethemediadebatesofthe1990sfocusedontheinfluencesofmediaonlearning,cognitiveloadeffectswerebeingdocumentedinseveraljournals.Ratherthanattemptingtosubstantiatetheuseofmedia,thesecognitiveloadlearningeffectsprovidedanempiricalbasisfortheuseofinstructionalstrategies.Mayeraskedtheinstructionaldesigncommunitytoreassessthemediadebate,torefocustheirattentiononwhatwasmostimportant:

learning.[9]

Bythemid-tolate-1990s,Swellerandhisassociateshaddiscoveredseverallearningeffectsrelatedtocognitiveloadandthedesignofinstruction（e.g.thesplitattentioneffect,redundancyeffect,andtheworked-exampleeffect）.Later,otherresearcherslikeRichardMayerbegantoattributelearningeffectstocognitiveload.[9]MayerandhisassociatessoondevelopedaCognitiveTheoryofMultimediaLearning.[10][11][12]

Inthepastdecade,cognitiveloadtheoryhasbeguntobeinternationallyaccepted[13]andbeguntorevolutionizehowpractitionersofinstructionaldesignviewinstruction.Recently,humanperformanceexpertshaveeventakennoticeofcognitiveloadtheory,andhavebeguntopromotethistheorybaseasthescienceofinstruction,withinstructionaldesignersasthepractitionersofthisfield.[14]FinallyClark,NguyenandSweller[15]publishedatextbookdescribinghowInstructionalDesignerscanpromoteefficientlearningusingevidence-basedguidelinesofcognitiveloadtheory.

InstructionalDesignersusevariousinstructionalstrategiestoreducecognitiveload.Forexample,theythinkthattheonscreentextshouldnotbemorethan150wordsorthetextshouldbepresentedinsmallmeaningfulchunks.[citationneeded]Thedesignersalsouseauditoryandvisualmethodstocommunicateinformationtothelearner.

Learningdesign

Theconceptoflearningdesignarrivedintheliteratureoftechnologyforeducationinthelateninetiesandearly2000s[16]withtheideathat"designersandinstructorsneedtochooseforthemselvesthebestmixtureofbehaviouristandconstructivistlearningexperiencesfortheironlinecourses"[17].Buttheconceptoflearningdesignisprobablyasoldastheconceptofteaching.Learningdesignmightbedefinedas"thedescriptionoftheteaching-learningprocessthattakesplaceinaunitoflearning（eg,acourse,alessonoranyotherdesignedlearningevent）"[18].

AssummarizedbyBritain[19],learningdesignmaybeassociatedwith:

∙Theconceptoflearningdesign

∙TheimplementationoftheconceptmadebylearningdesignspecificationslikePALO,IMSLearningDesign[20],LDL,SLD2.0,etc...

∙ThetechnicalrealisationsaroundtheimplementationoftheconceptlikeTELOS,RELOADLD-Author,etc...

Instructionaldesignmodels

ADDIEprocess

PerhapsthemostcommonmodelusedforcreatinginstructionalmaterialsistheADDIEProcess.Thisacronymstandsforthe5phasescontainedinthemodel:

∙Analyze–analyzelearnercharacteristics,tasktobelearned,etc.

IdentifyInstructionalGoals,ConductInstructionalAnalysis,AnalyzeLearnersandContexts

∙Design–developlearningobjectives,chooseaninstructionalapproach

WritePerformanceObjectives,DevelopAssessmentInstruments,DevelopInstructionalStrategy

∙Develop–createinstructionalortrainingmaterials

Designandselectionofmaterialsappropriateforlearningactivity,DesignandConductFormativeEvaluation

∙Implement–deliverordistributetheinstructionalmaterials

∙Evaluate–makesurethematerialsachievedthedesiredgoals

DesignandConductSummativeEvaluation

MostofthecurrentinstructionaldesignmodelsarevariationsoftheADDIEprocess.[21]Dick,W.O,.Carey,L.,&Carey,J.O.（2004）SystematicDesignofInstruction.Boston,MA:

Allyn&Bacon.

Rapidprototyping

AsometimesutilizedadaptationtotheADDIEmodelisinapracticeknownasrapidprototyping.

Proponentssuggestthatthroughaniterativeprocesstheverificationofthedesigndocumentssavestimeandmoneybycatchingproblemswhiletheyarestilleasytofix.Thisapproachisnotnoveltothedesignofinstruction,butappearsinmanydesign-relateddomainsincludingsoftwaredesign,architecture,transportationplanning,productdevelopment,messagedesign,userexperiencedesign,etc.[21][22][23]Infact,someproponentsofdesignprototypingassertthatasophisticatedunderstandingofaproblemisincompletewithoutcreatingandevaluatingsometypeofprototype,regardlessoftheanalysisrigorthatmayhavebeenappliedupfront.[24]Inotherwords,up-frontanalysisisrarelysufficienttoallowonetoconfidentlyselectaninstructionalmodel.Forthisreasonmanytraditionalmethodsofinstructionaldesignarebeginningtobeseenasincomplete,naive,andevencounter-productive.[25]

However,someconsiderrapidprototypingtobeasomewhatsimplistictypeofmodel.Asthisargumentgoes,attheheartofInstructionalDesignistheanalysisphase.Afteryouthoroughlyconducttheanalysis—youcanthenchooseamodelbasedonyourfindings.Thatistheareawheremostpeoplegetsnagged—theysimplydonotdoathorough-enoughanalysis.（PartofArticleByChrisBressionLinkedIn）

DickandCarey

Anotherwell-knowninstructionaldesignmodelisTheDickandCareySystemsApproachModel.[26]Themodelwasoriginallypublishedin1978byWalterDickandLouCareyintheirbookentitledTheSystematicDesignofInstruction.

DickandCareymadeasignificantcontributiontotheinstructionaldesignfieldbychampioningasystemsviewofinstructionasopposedtoviewinginstructionasasumofisolatedparts.Themodeladdressesinstructionasanentiresystem,focusingontheinterrelationshipbetweencontext,content,learningandinstruction.AccordingtoDickandCarey,"Componentssuchastheinstructor,learners,materials,instructionalactivities,deliverysystem,andlearningandperformanceenvironmentsinteractwitheachotherandworktogethertobringaboutthedesiredstudentlearningoutcomes".[26]ThecomponentsoftheSystemsApproachModel,alsoknownastheDickandCareyModel,areasfollows:

∙IdentifyInstructionalGoal（s）:

goalstatementdescribesaskill,knowledgeorattitude（SKA）thatalearnerwillbeexpectedtoacquire

∙ConductInstructionalAnalysis:

Identifywhatalearnermustrecallandidentifywhatlearnermustbeabletodotoperformparticulartask

∙AnalyzeLearnersandContexts:

Generalcharacteristicofthetargetaudience,Characteristicdirectlyrelatedtotheskilltobetaught,AnalysisofPerfor