Instructional design.docx

1、Instructional designInstructional designFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaInstructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences. The process consists broadly of dete

2、rmining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some intervention to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically (process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning) tested theories of learning and may take pl

3、ace in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2

4、) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.HistoryMuch of the foundations of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced

5、the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bombersee Training Within Industry (TWI). Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs

6、focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feed

7、back. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. The approach is still common in the U.S. military.1In 1956, a committee led by Benjamin Bloom published an influential tax

8、onomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what one knows or thinks), Psychomotor (what one does, physically) and Affective (what one feels, or what attitudes one has). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction.2During the latter half of the 20th century, lear

9、ning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.In the 1970s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT), which concentrates on t

10、he means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques).3Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.4Cognitive load theory and the design of instructionCognitive load theory developed out

11、 of several empirical studies of learners, as they interacted with instructional materials.5 Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load, and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materia

12、ls.678While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. Rather than attempting to substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basis for the use of instr

13、uctional strategies. Mayer asked the instructional design community to reassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important: learning.9By the mid- to late-1990s, Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of

14、 instruction (e.g. the split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.9 Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.101112In the past de

15、cade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted13 and begun to revolutionize how practitioners of instructional design view instruction. Recently, human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begun to promote this theory base as the science

16、 of instruction, with instructional designers as the practitioners of this field.14 Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller15 published a textbook describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence-based guidelines of cognitive load theory.Instructional Designers use vari

17、ous instructional strategies to reduce cognitive load. For example, they think that the onscreen text should not be more than 150 words or the text should be presented in small meaningful chunks.citation needed The designers also use auditory and visual methods to communicate information to the lear

18、ner.Learning designThe concept of learning design arrived in the literature of technology for education in the late nineties and early 2000s 16 with the idea that designers and instructors need to choose for themselves the best mixture of behaviourist and constructivist learning experiences for thei

19、r online courses 17. But the concept of learning design is probably as old as the concept of teaching. Learning design might be defined as the description of the teaching-learning process that takes place in a unit of learning (eg, a course, a lesson or any other designed learning event) 18.As summa

20、rized by Britain19, learning design may be associated with:The concept of learning designThe implementation of the concept made by learning design specifications like PALO, IMS Learning Design20, LDL, SLD 2.0, etc.The technical realisations around the implementation of the concept like TELOS, RELOAD

21、 LD-Author, etc.Instructional design modelsADDIE processPerhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Process. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:Analyze analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.Identify Instructional Go

22、als, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analyze Learners and ContextsDesign develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approachWrite Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments, Develop Instructional StrategyDevelop create instructional or training materialsDesign and selection of

23、materials appropriate for learning activity, Design and Conduct Formative EvaluationImplement deliver or distribute the instructional materialsEvaluate make sure the materials achieved the desired goalsDesign and Conduct Summative EvaluationMost of the current instructional design models are variati

24、ons of the ADDIE process.21 Dick,W.O,.Carey, L.,&Carey, J.O.(2004)Systematic Design of Instruction. Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.Rapid prototypingA sometimes utilized adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping.Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verificat

25、ion of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message d

26、esign, user experience design, etc.212223 In fact, some proponents of design prototyping assert that a sophisticated understanding of a problem is incomplete without creating and evaluating some type of prototype, regardless of the analysis rigor that may have been applied up front.24 In other words

27、, up-front analysis is rarely sufficient to allow one to confidently select an instructional model. For this reason many traditional methods of instructional design are beginning to be seen as incomplete, naive, and even counter-productive.25However, some consider rapid prototyping to be a somewhat

28、simplistic type of model. As this argument goes, at the heart of Instructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysisyou can then choose a model based on your findings. That is the area where most people get snaggedthey simply do not do a thorough-enough analysis. (P

29、art of Article By Chris Bressi on LinkedIn)Dick and CareyAnother well-known instructional design model is The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model.26 The model was originally published in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.Dick and Carey ma

30、de a significant contribution to the instructional design field by championing a systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on the interrelationship between context, content, learning and ins

31、truction. According to Dick and Carey, Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes.26 The components of the

32、 Systems Approach Model, also known as the Dick and Carey Model, are as follows:Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or attitude(SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquireConduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify what learner must be able to do to perform particular taskAnalyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience, Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Perfor