Philosophy.docx

Philosophy.docx

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Philosophy

Philosophy

Philosophy isthestudyofgeneralandfundamentalproblems,suchasthoseconnectedwith reality, existence,knowledge, values, reason, mind,and language.[1][2] Philosophyisdistinguishedfromotherwaysofaddressingsuchproblemsbyitscritical,generallysystematicapproachanditsrelianceon rationalargument.[3] Inmorecasualspeech,byextension,"philosophy"canreferto"themostbasicbeliefs,concepts,andattitudesofanindividualorgroup".[4]

Theword"philosophy"comesfromthe AncientGreek φιλοσοφία（philosophia）,whichliterallymeans"loveofwisdom".[5][6][7] Theintroductionoftheterms"philosopher"and"philosophy"hasbeenascribedtotheGreekthinkerPythagoras.[8]

Areasofinquiry

Philosophyisdividedintomanysub-fields.Theseincludeepistemology,logic,metaphysics,ethics,andaesthetics.[9][10] Someofthemajorareasofstudyareconsideredindividuallybelow.

Epistemology

Mainarticle:

 Epistemology

Epistemologyisconcernedwiththenatureandscopeofknowledge,[11] suchastherelationshipsbetween truth, belief,and theoriesofjustification.

Skepticism isthepositionwhichquestionsthepossibilityofcompletelyjustifyinganytruth.The regressargument,afundamentalprobleminepistemology,occurswhen,inordertocompletelyproveanystatement,itsjustificationitselfneedstobesupportedbyanotherjustification.Thischaincandothreepossibleoptions,allofwhichareunsatisfactoryaccordingtothe Münchhausentrilemma.Oneoptionis infinitism,wherethischainofjustificationcangoonforever.Anotheroptionis foundationalism,wherethechainofjustificationseventuallyrelieson basicbeliefs oraxioms thatareleftunproven.Thelastoption,suchasin coherentism,ismakingthechain circular sothatastatementisincludedinitsownchainofjustification.

Rationalism istheemphasisonreasoningasasourceofknowledge. Empiricism istheemphasisonobservationalevidenceviasensoryexperienceoverotherevidenceasthesourceofknowledge.Rationalismclaimsthateverypossibleobjectofknowledgecanbededucedfromcoherentpremiseswithoutobservation.Empiricismclaimsthatatleastsomeknowledgeisonlyamatterofobservation.Forthis,Empiricismoftencitestheconceptof tabularasa,whereindividualsarenotbornwith mentalcontent andthatknowledgebuildsfromexperienceorperception. Epistemologicalsolipsism istheideathattheexistenceoftheworldoutsidethemindisanunresolvablequestion.

Parmenides （fl.500BC）arguedthatitisimpossibletodoubtthatthinkingactuallyoccurs.Butthinkingmusthaveanobject,thereforesomething beyond thinkingreallyexists.Parmenidesdeducedthatwhatreallyexistsmusthavecertainproperties—forexample,thatitcannotcomeintoexistenceorceasetoexist,thatitisacoherentwhole,thatitremainsthesameeternally（infact,existsaltogetheroutsidetime）.Thisisknownasthe thirdmanargument. Plato（427–347BC）combinedrationalismwithaformof realism.Thephilosopher'sworkistoconsiderbeing,andtheessence（ousia）ofthings.Butthecharacteristicofessencesisthattheyareuniversal.Thenatureofaman,atriangle,atree,appliestoallmen,alltriangles,alltrees.Platoarguedthattheseessencesaremind-independent"forms",thathumans（butparticularlyphilosophers）cancometoknowbyreason,andbyignoringthedistractionsofsense-perception.

Modernrationalismbeginswith Descartes.Reflectiononthenatureofperceptualexperience,aswellasscientificdiscoveriesinphysiologyandoptics,ledDescartes（andalso Locke）totheviewthatwearedirectlyawareofideas,ratherthanobjects.Thisviewgaverisetothreequestions:

1.Isanideaatruecopyoftherealthingthatitrepresents?

Sensationisnotadirectinteractionbetweenbodilyobjectsandoursense,butisaphysiologicalprocessinvolvingrepresentation（forexample,animageontheretina）.Lockethoughtthata"secondaryquality"suchasasensationofgreencouldinnowayresemblethearrangementofparticlesinmatterthatgotoproducethissensation,althoughhethoughtthat"primaryqualities"suchasshape,size,number,werereallyinobjects.

2.Howcanphysicalobjectssuchaschairsandtables,orevenphysiologicalprocessesinthebrain,giverisetomentalitemssuchasideas?

Thisispartofwhatbecameknownasthe mind-bodyproblem.

3.Ifallthecontentsofawarenessareideas,howcanweknowthatanythingexistsapartfromideas?

Descartestriedtoaddressthelastproblembyreason.Hebegan,echoingParmenides,withaprinciplethathethoughtcouldnotcoherentlybedenied:

I think,thereforeI am （oftengiveninhisoriginalLatin:

 Cogitoergosum）.Fromthisprinciple,Descarteswentontoconstructacompletesystemofknowledge（whichinvolvesprovingthe existenceofGod,using,amongothermeans,aversionofthe ontologicalargument）.[12] Hisviewthatreasonalonecouldyieldsubstantialtruthsaboutrealitystronglyinfluencedthosephilosophersusuallyconsideredmodernrationalists（suchas BaruchSpinoza, GottfriedLeibniz,and ChristianWolff）,whileprovokingcriticismfromotherphilosopherswhohaveretrospectivelycometobegroupedtogetherasempiricists.

Logic

Mainarticle:

 Logic

Logicisthestudyoftheprinciplesofcorrect reasoning. Arguments useeitherdeductivereasoningorinductivereasoning. Deductivereasoning iswhen,givencertainstatements（called premises）,otherstatements（calledconclusions）are unavoidablyimplied. Rulesofinferences frompremisesincludethemostpopularmethod, modusponens,wheregiven“A”and“IfAthenB”,then“B”mustbeconcluded.Acommonconventionforadeductiveargumentisthe syllogism.Anargumentistermed valid ifitsconclusiondoesindeedfollowfromitspremises,whetherthepremisesaretrueornot,whileanargumentis sound ifitsconclusionfollowsfrompremisesthataretrue. Propositionallogic usespremisesthatarepropositions,whichare declarations thatareeithertrueorfalse,while predicatelogic usesmorecomplexpremisescalled formulae thatcontainvariables.Thesecanbeassignedvaluesorcanbe quantified astowhentheyapplywiththe universalquantifier （alwaysapply）orthe existentialquantifier （appliesatleastonce）. Inductivereasoning makesconclusionsorgeneralizationsbasedon probabilisticreasoning.Forexample,if“90%ofhumansareright-handed”and“Joeishuman”then“Joeisprobablyright-handed”.Fieldsinlogicinclude mathematicallogic （formalsymboliclogic）and philosophicallogic.

Metaphysics

Mainarticle:

 Metaphysics

Metaphysicsisthestudyofthemostgeneralfeaturesof reality,suchas existence, time,therelationshipbetween mind and body, objects andtheirproperties,wholesandtheirparts,events,processes,and causation.Traditionalbranchesofmetaphysicsinclude cosmology,thestudyofthe worldinitsentirety,and ontology,thestudyof being.

Withinmetaphysicsitselfthereareawiderangeofdifferingphilosophical theories. Idealism,forexample,isthebeliefthatrealityismentallyconstructedorotherwiseimmaterialwhile realism holdsthatreality,oratleastsomepartofit,existsindependentlyofthemind. Subjectiveidealism describesobjectsasnomorethancollectionsor"bundles"ofsensedataintheperceiver.The18thcenturyphilosopher GeorgeBerkeleycontendedthatexistenceisfundamentallytiedtoperceptionwiththephrase Esseestautpercipiautpercipere or"Tobeistobeperceivedortoperceive".[13]

Inadditiontotheaforementionedviews,however,thereisalsoanontological dichotomy withinmetaphysicsbetweentheconceptsofparticularsanduniversalsaswell. Particulars arethoseobjectsthataresaidtoexistinspaceandtime,asopposedto abstractobjects,suchasnumbers.Universals arepropertiesheldbymultipleparticulars,suchasrednessoragender.Thetypeof existence,ifany,ofuniversalsandabstractobjectsisanissueofserious debate withinmetaphysicalphilosophy. Realism isthephilosophicalpositionthatuniversalsdoinfactexist,whilenominalism isthenegation,ordenialofuniversals,abstractobjects,orboth.[14] Conceptualism holdsthatuniversalsexist,butonlywithinthemind'sperception.[15]

Thequestionofwhetherornot existence isa predicate hasbeendiscussedsincetheEarlyModernperiod. Essence isthesetofattributesthatmakeanobjectwhatitfundamentallyisandwithoutwhichitlosesits identity.Essenceiscontrastedwith accident:

apropertythatthesubstancehascontingently,withoutwhichthesubstancecanstillretainitsidentity.

Moralandpoliticalphilosophy

Mainarticles:

 Ethics and Politicalphilosophy

Ethics,or"moralphilosophy,"isconcernedprimarilywiththequestionofthebestwaytolive,andsecondarily,concerningthequestionofwhetherthisquestioncanbeanswered.Themainbranchesofethicsare meta-ethics, normativeethics,and appliedethics.Meta-ethicsconcernsthenatureofethicalthought,suchastheoriginsofthewordsgoodandbad,andoriginsofothercomparativewordsofvariousethicalsystems,whetherthereareabsoluteethicaltruths,andhowsuchtruthscouldbeknown.Normativeethicsaremoreconcernedwiththequestionsofhowoneoughttoact,andwhattherightcourseofactionis.Thisiswheremostethicaltheoriesaregenerated.Lastly,appliedethicsgobeyondtheoryandstepintorealworldethicalpractice,suchasquestionsofwhetherornotabortioniscorrect.Ethicsisalsoassociatedwiththeideaof morality,andthetwoareofteninterchangeable.

Onedebatethathascommandedtheattentionofethicistsinthemodernerahasbeenbetween consequentialism （actionsaretobemorallyevaluatedsolelybytheir consequ