文献综述的例子 英语专业学期论文.docx

文献综述的例子 英语专业学期论文.docx

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文献综述的例子英语专业学期论文

Literaturereviewofreadingissues

Introduction:

Readingisregardedastheoneofthefourbasicskillslinlanguagelearningbecausepeoplegetinformationthroughreadingaswellaslisteningratherthanspeakingandwriting.Barnes&Powellthinkthat“Readingholdsthekeytoadvancedlanguagelearning.”（1996,p.13）Krashen’sinputhypothesis（1982）alsoprovidedthetheoreticalsupportreadinginsecondorforeignlanguageacquisitionwhicharguesforthelearnersacquirealanguagebyenoughandhigh-qualitycomprehensibleinput.Thedevelopmentoftechnologylikefaxes,computersmakesreadingmoreimportantindailylifeandlanguagelearningoracquisition.However,thewidespreadofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingnowadaysavertmoreofeducator’sattentionfromreadingtospeakingallovertheworld,particularlyinAsiancountrieslikeChinawhereasreadingcomprehensionisthemostimportantandnecessarypartinallEnglishexams.ThismakesreadinginstructioninadilemmaandunpopularinmostChineseuniversitiesbecauseregularclassesgenerallytendtoemphasizereadingthecoursebookassignedratherthanextensivereading.Andstudentsaretaughtinawaythatfocusondirectteachingofreadingcomprehensionandintensivereadingofshort,difficulttextscomingformassignedcoursebook,whichcausesaheavyburdenofdictionaryworkload.BothofthetwoformsofreadingarenecessaryinreadinginstructionandIwillreviewrelevantliteratureconcerningthetwoformsindifferentareas,butmuchofthefocuswillbeonextensivereadingduetoitssignificanceandweakimplementationinChina.

Readingcomprehensionforatext

Whilethereaderwasoncebelievedtobeapassivereceiverofinformation,heorsheisnowconsideredanactiveparticipantinareadingactivity.Sadeghi（2007）arguesthatareaderisanactiveparticipantinthereader-writerinteractionwhointeractswiththetext,thecontextandthewriterbyusinghisorherlinguisticschema,particularlycontentschema,formalschema.Singhal（1998,p.2）furtherdistinguishesbetweenthreetypesofschema:

contentschema,referringtoone’sbackgroundorworldknowledge;formalschema,alsoknownastextualschema,referringtoone’sknowledgeaboutatext’sorganizationalandrhetoricalstructure;andlanguageorlinguisticschema,referringtoone’sknowledgeoflexicon,syntax,andsemantics.Theyallplaydifferentbutimportantroleintheinterpretationofareadingtext.Importanttextcharacteristicssuchastexttype,topic,genre,lexicaldensity,syntacticcomplexity,semanticabstractness,complexityofstructuresentencelengthalsoaffecttextcomprehensibility（Pearson&Camperell,1981,p.33）.Fortheroleofvocabularyinreading,thereisafigurethatlearnersneedtohaveminimumamountofvocabulary,about3000wordfamiliesor5000lexicalitemsinordertoreadeffectively（Laufer,1997,p.25）.Buttheydidn’trelatethetextlengthtoreadingcomprehension.AndMehrpourandRiazi（2004）foundthelengthofthetextdidnothaveanystatisticallysignificanteffectonthestudents'performanceonthetest.However,empirically,studentstendtofeelanxious,impatientorfrustratedwhenfacingalongtextthanashorttextifatthesamelevelofdifficultyandifthetextisalittlebitdifficult.Thistellsuswhentestingastudent,teachersortestpaperproducersdonotneedtoconsidertoomuchaboutthetext’slength,butdifficultandlongtextssurelydemotivateandfrustratethestudent.Thisisalsotruetoclassroomreadinginstruction.AndtheimplicationofschematatheoryinreadinginstructionisthatwhileL2readersbringtheirL1contentandformalschematoL2situations,teachersneedhelpthemdevelopL2languageschemafromthebeginning.InChineseuniversities,teacherstendtoemphasizedevelopingstudents’linguisticschemabyteachingvocabularyandgrammarratherthanformalandcontentschema,particularlythelatter.Therefore,thereisamustthatinstructorsneedtocoverformalandcontentschemaknowledgeinreadinginstruction.

Forreadingstrategies,Schoonernetal（1998,citedinGuan,2004,p.23）findthataneffectivereadercaneffectivelyuseandmakeconstantshiftsbetweentop-downandbottom-upapproacheswiththemeta-cognitiveknowledge.Meta-cognitiveknowledge,referringtoareader’sabilitytoadjusthisorherstrategiestocompleteatask（Baker&Brown,1984）,isveryusefulforeffectivereadinginthatitenablesthereadertocompensatehisorherdeficienciesinlinguisticschema.Thetop-downapproachbasicallyemphasizesonthereader’scontentschemaknowledgeinthatitemphasizesonhisorherinterpretationandpriorknowledge.Itdemandsthereadertoactivatehisorherschematoarriveatthetextmeaning.However,thebottom-upapproachinvolvesthereadertoarriveatthetextmeaningbydecodingthetextthroughtheknowledgeoflinguisticschemaandtextschema.Duetothelackoftheircontentschemaandinsufficientreadingamount,ChineselearnersofEnglishtendtousebottom-upapproachduringreadingprocess.Thisonceagaincallsforthenecessityoftheircontentschemainputbysufficientreadingandteachers’instruction.Besides,strategyinstructionisalsoimportantinreadingcomprehensiondomain（Nuttall,1996;Danielle,2008）especiallyforthosewhohavelesscontentschemaknowledgeForexample,teachersaresuggestedtousementalmodellingtomakestheirreadingprocessvisibleandeasyforthestudentstoimitatetheirreadingprocedures,thusfurthertohelptodevelopstudents’readingstrategiesbyimprovingtheirreasoningbyimitatingtheteacher’sprocessofreasoning（Pani,2004,p.361）.Studentscanbeputingroupstotaketurnsself-explainingapartofthetextbookusingthestrategiesofparaphrasing,elaboration,predictionandbridginginference（Danielle,2008,p.35）.

Extensivereading

RichardsandSchmidt（2002,pp.193-194）defineextensivereadingas“…readinginquantityandinordertogainageneralunderstandingofwhatisread.”Itattemptstobuildupknowledgeofvocabularyandstructure,arouseinterestinreadinganddevelopgoodreadinghabits.Krashen’sinputhypothesis（1982）alsoemphasizedthevalueofextensivereadinginreadinginstructionbecauseofitssufficientcomprehensibleinputandhisreadinghypothesis（1993）pointsoutthepositiveeffectofextensivereadingonotherskillslikespeaking,listeningandwritingandotherabilitieslikereadingcomprehensionandspeed,vocabulary,grammarandspelling.Thisreadinghypothesishasbeensupportedbymanyresearches（Mason&Krashen,1997;Bell,2001;Macalister,2008）andMengalsosupplementsthehypothesiswiththecultivationofinterestandmotivation,positiveattitudeandlearninghabitstowardsreadingandgenerallanguagelearning.However,Yamashita（2008,p.668）arguesthatextensivereadinghaslittleeffectonlinguisticabilitybysurveyingagroupofstudents.Nomattertowhatextentoneagreeswiththetwohypothesis,itisundeniablethatextensivereadinghasaverypositiveroleinsecondorforeignlanguagelearningthusshouldbeintegratedinschoolcurriculum.Ashowtoemployextensivereadinginreadinginstruction,DayandBamford（2002,p.137-140）introducetenguidelinesforextensivereadingteachingandlearningfromperspectivesofreadingmaterials,teachers,studentsandreadingitself.Readingmaterialsshouldbeeasyandenjoyableandconcerningavarietyoftopics;teachersneedtoorientandguidetheirstudentsandalsoactasarolemodelofareader;studentscanchoosewhattheywanttoreadandtheyshouldreadasmuchaspossible;thepurposeofreadingisforpleasure,informationgainingandgeneralunderstandingandreadingisindividualandsilent.Meanwhilereadingspeedshouldbefaster.Bell（1998）suggeststhatextensivereadingshould“avoidtheuseoftests”.ButinChina,studentsareusetothewaythattheylearnfortheexam,andifteachersdon’ttestthem,theyareprobablynottoread.Ofcourse,otherformslikekeepingajournalofreadingmaterials,cardfilesystemorthereaderinterviewmightbebetterchoicesbutkindofdifficulttoemployinalargeclasstomonitoreverybody’sreading.Therefore,testingcanbeoccasionallyusedinmyteachingcontexttoensurethateverybodyinvolvesinreading,butitshouldnotbeusedtoomuchincaseofthecauseofreaders’demotivationandfrustration.

Inaddition,SustainedSilentReading（SSR）wasregardedasaneffectivewaynomatterforintensivereadingorextensivereading.ButsuccessofSSRcallsforaquiet,relaxingandnon-evaluativeclassroomenvironmentandteachersneedtoprovidearolemodelofsilentreading（Chow&Chou,2000citedinYang,p.118）.AlthoughBell（1998）andWallace（1992,pp.54-56）advocatereadaloud（RA）inlanguagelearningaswellasreadinginstruction,butthisisbasedonthereasonthatRAcanmotivateandencouragethestudentstoinvolveinclassroomreadingandimprovepronunciationofindividualwords,butWallace（1992,p.56）andGabrielatos（2002,p.2）admitthatRAcanbedetrimentaltothedevelopmentofreadingskillsintermsofreadingcomprehensionandreadingspeed.Therefore,wecanchoosetouseSSRorRAinreadingaccordingtodifferentpurposes.Butforhigher-levelofreadinglikemyuniversitystudents’,SSRmightbeabetterchoicewhileforyoungchildrenwithalowlevelEnglish,RAcanbeusedtogetherwithSSR.Ozburn（1995）arguesthatthebenefitsofextensivereadingcannotbeobserveduntiltheminimumoffourmonthshaspassed.Therefore,educatorsshouldnotgiveupextensivereadingifstudentsdonotgetinstantpositiveresultwhenintegratingextensivereadinginEFLinstruction,butifthe