剑桥商务英语扩展笔记 NOTES OF BEC.docx
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剑桥商务英语扩展笔记NOTESOFBEC
NOTESOFBEC:
UNIT8PRODUCTION
Opportunitycost=economicopportunitycost机会成本
Opportunitycostoreconomicopportunitylossisthevalueofthenextbestalternativeforegoneastheresultofmakingadecision.Opportunitycostanalysisisanimportantpartofacompany'sdecision-makingprocessesbutisnottreatedasanactualcostinanyfinancialstatement.Thenextbestthingthatapersoncanengageinisreferredtoastheopportunitycostofdoingthebestthingandignoringthenextbestthingtobedone.
Opportunitycostisakeyconceptineconomicsbecauseitimpliesthechoicebetweendesirable,yetmutuallyexclusiveresults.Itisacalculatingfactorusedinmixedmarketswhichfavorsocialchangeinfavorofpurelyindividualisticeconomics.Ithasbeendescribedasexpressing"thebasicrelationshipbetweenscarcityandchoice."Thenotionofopportunitycostplaysacrucialpartinensuringthatscarceresourcesareusedefficiently.Thus,opportunitycostsarenotrestrictedtomonetaryorfinancialcosts:
therealcostofoutputforgone,losttime,swag,pleasureoranyotherbenefitthatprovidesutilityshouldalsobeconsideredopportunitycosts.
sunkcosts沉没成本
Ineconomicsandbusinessdecision-making,sunkcostsareretrospective(past)costswhichhavealreadybeenincurredandcannotberecovered.Sunkcostsaresometimescontrastedwithprospectivecostswhicharefuturecoststhatmaybeincurredorchangedifanactionistaken.Bothretrospectiveandprospectivecostsmaybeeitherfixed(thatis,theyarenotdependentonthevolumeofeconomicactivity,howevermeasured)orvariable(dependentonvolume).
Fixedcosts固定成本
Ineconomics,fixedcostsarebusinessexpensesthatarenotdependentontheactivitiesofthebusiness.Theytendtobetime-related,suchassalariesorrentsbeingpaidpermonth.Thisisincontrasttovariablecosts,whicharevolume-related(andarepaidperquantity).
Inmanagementaccounting(管理会计,管理核算),fixedcostsaredefinedasexpensesthatdonotchangeinproportiontotheactivityofabusiness,withintherelevantperiodorscaleofproduction.Forexample,aretailermustpayrentandutilitybillsirrespectiveofsales.Alongwithvariablecosts,fixedcostsmakeuponeofthetwocomponentsoftotalcost(总成本).Inthemostsimpleproductionfunction,totalcostisequaltofixedcostsplusvariablecosts.
Variablecosts可变成本
Variablecostsareexpensesthatchangeinproportiontotheactivityofabusiness.Inotherwords,variablecostisthesumofmarginalcosts(边际成本).Itcanalsobeconsiderednormalcosts(正常成本).Alongwithfixedcosts,variablecostsmakeupthetwocomponentsoftotalcost.DirectCosts,however,arecoststhatcaneasilybeassociatedwithaparticularcostobject(e.g.labor,material,etc.).Notallvariablecostsaredirectcosts,however;forexample,variablemanufacturingoverheadcostsarevariablecoststhatarenotdirectcosts,butindirectcosts.Variablecostsaresometimescalledunit-levelcostsastheyvarywiththenumberofunitsproduced.
Directlaborandoverhead(企业经常性开支)areoftencalledconversioncost,whiledirectmaterialanddirectlaborareoftenreferredtoasprimecost.
Fixedcosts&variablecosts
Acompanywillpayforlinerentalandmaintenancefeeseachperiodregardlessofhowmuchpowergetsused.Andsomeelectricalequipment(airconditioningorlighting)maybekeptrunningeveninperiodsoflowactivity.Theseexpensescanberegardedasfixed.Butbeyondthis,thecompanywilluseelectricitytorunplantandmachineryasrequired.Thebusierthecompany,themoretheplantwillberun,andsothemoreelectricitygetsused.Thisextraspendingcanthereforeberegardedasvariable.
Inretailthecostofgoodsisalmostentirelyavariablecost;thisisnottrueofmanufacturingwheremanyfixedcosts,suchasdepreciation,areincludedinthecostofgoods.
Althoughtaxationusuallyvarieswithprofit,whichinturnvarieswithsalesvolume,itisnotnormallyconsideredavariablecost.
Inmostoftheconcerns,salaryispaidonmonthlyrates.Thoughtheremayexistalabourworknormbasedonwhichthedirectcost(labor)canbeabsorbedintocostoftheproduct,salarycannotbetermedasvariableinthiscase.
Totalqualitymanagement(TQM)全面质量管理
Totalqualitymanagement(TQM)isabusinessmanagementstrategyaimedatembeddingawarenessofqualityinallorganizationalprocesses.TQMhasbeenwidelyusedinmanufacturing,education,hospitals,callcenters,government,andserviceindustries,aswellasNASAspaceandscienceprograms.
TQMisanapproachtoQualityAssurance,where-instrategicdetailsforimplementingQualityintheprocessisemphasized.ItbringstheconceptofQualityinearlytransformationprocessofRawmaterialtofinishedgood,asopposedtoqualitytestsinfinalphasesoftheproduct/process/services.
TQMclearsthesourcesofdefectstoenterinthefinalproductandgrowqualityassuranceinthefinalproduct/process/services.IndustrieshadmajorlyacceptedthemethodtoavoidhiddenFactory(re-work)andordealwithQualityrelatedIssues.
Kaizen=kaizan改善哲学
Thetermkaizen(改善,Japanesefor"improvement")isaJapanesewordadoptedintoEnglishreferringtoaphilosophyorpracticesfocusingoncontinuousimprovementinmanufacturingactivities,businessactivitiesingeneral,andevenlifeingeneral,dependingoninterpretationandusage.Whenusedinthebusinesssenseandappliedtotheworkplace,kaizentypicallyreferstoactivitiesthatcontinuallyimproveallfunctionsofabusiness,frommanufacturingtomanagementandfromtheCEOtotheassemblylineworkers.Byimprovingstandardizedactivitiesandprocesses,kaizenaimstoeliminatewaste(seeleanmanufacturing).KaizenwasfirstimplementedinseveralJapanesebusinessesduringthecountry'srecoveryafterWorldWarIIandhassincespreadtobusinessesthroughouttheworld
DemingCycle=PDCA德明循环
PDCA(plan-do-check-act)isaniterativefour-stepproblem-solvingprocesstypicallyusedinbusinessprocessimprovement.ItisalsoknownastheDemingcycle,Shewhartcycle,Demingwheel,orplan-do-study-act.
PLAN:
Establishtheobjectivesandprocessesnecessarytodeliverresultsinaccordancewiththeexpectedoutput.Bymakingtheexpectedoutputthefocus,itdiffersfromothertechniquesinthatthecompletenessandaccuracyofthespecificationisalsopartoftheimprovement.
DO:
Implementthenewprocesses,oftenonasmallscaleifpossible.
CHECK:
Measurethenewprocessesandcomparetheresultsagainsttheexpectedresultstoascertainanydifferences.
ACT:
Analyzethedifferencestodeterminetheircause.EachwillbepartofeitheroneormoreoftheP-D-C-Asteps.Determinewheretoapplychangesthatwillincludeimprovement.Whenapassthroughthesefourstepsdoesnotresultintheneedtoimprove,refinethescopetowhichPDCAisapplieduntilthereisaplanthatinvolvesimprovement
EnterpriseResourcePlanning(ERP)企业资源管理,企业资源计划
EnterpriseResourcePlanning(ERP)isatermusuallyusedinconjunctionwithERPsoftwareoranERPsystemwhichisintendedtomanagealltheinformationandfunctionsofabusinessorcompanyfromshareddatastores.
AnERPsystemtypicallyhasmodularhardwareandsoftwareunitsand"services"thatcommunicateonalocalareanetwork.Themodulardesignallowsabusinesstoaddorreconfiguremodules(perhapsfromdifferentvendors)whilepreservingdataintegrityinoneshareddatabasethatmaybecentralizedordistributed.
Marginalcost边际成本
Ineconomicsandfinance,marginalcostisthechangeintotalcostthatariseswhenthequantityproducedchangesbyoneunit.Itisthecostofproducingonemoreunitofagood.
QC:
QualityControl质量管理
Inengineeringandmanufacturing,qualitycontrolandqualityengineeringareusedindevelopingsystemstoensureproductsorservicesaredesignedandproducedtomeetorexceedcustomerrequirements.Qualitycontrolisthebranchofengineeringandmanufacturingwhichdealswithassuranceandfailuretestingindesignandproductionofproductsorservices,tomeetorexceedcustomerrequirements.
Qualityassurance质量保证
orQAforshort,referstoplannedandsystematicproductionprocessesthatprovideconfidenceinaproduct'ssuitabilityforitsintendedpurpose.Itisasetofactivitiesintendedtoensurethatproducts(goodsand/orservices)satisfycustomerrequirementsinasystematic,reliablefashion.QAcannotabsolutelyguaranteetheproductionofqualityproducts,unfortunately,butmakesthismorelikely.
TwokeyprinciplescharacterizeQA:
"fitforpurpose"(theproductshouldbesuitablefortheintendedpurpose)and"rightfirsttime"(mistakesshouldbeeliminated).QAincludesregulationofthequalityofrawmaterials,assemblies,productsandcomponents;servicesrelatedtoproduction;andmanagement,productionandinspectionprocesses.
Itisimportanttorealizealsothatqualityisdeterminedbytheintendedusers,clientsorcustomers,notbysocietyingeneral:
itisnotthesameas'expensive'or'highquality'.Evengoodswithlowpricescanbeconsideredqualityitemsiftheymeetamarketneed.
HISTORY:
Craftsman:
letthebuyerbeware(caveatemptor);workingconditions
Wartime:
massproduction&piecework(影响质量,工人求量不求质);Statisticalqualitycontrol,sampling&controlcharts
Postwar:
Japan
QC&QA
Qualitycontrolemphasizestestingofproductstouncoverdefects,andreportingtomanagementwhomakethedecisiontoallowordenytherelease.Whereasqualityassuranceattemptstoimproveandstabilizeproduction,andassociatedprocesses,toavoid,oratleastminimize,issuesthatledtothedefectsinthefirstplace.Topreventmistakesfromarising,severalQAmeth