Chinesearchitecture中国建筑.docx

Chinesearchitecture中国建筑.docx

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Chinesearchitecture中国建筑

Chinese-architecture中国建筑

Chinesearchitecture

ChinesearchitecturereferstoastyleofarchitecturethathastakenshapeinEastAsiaovermanycenturies.ThestructuralprinciplesofChinesearchitecturehaveremainedlargelyunchanged,themainchangesbeingonlythedecorativedetails.SincetheTangDynasty,ChinesearchitecturehashadamajorinfluenceonthearchitecturalstylesofKorea,Vietnam,andJapan.

ThearchitectureofChinaisasoldasChinesecivilization.Fromeverysourceofinformation—literary,graphic,exemplary—thereisstrongevidencetestifyingtothefactthattheChinesehavealwaysenjoyedanindigenoussystemofconstructionthathasretaineditsprincipalcharacteristicsfromprehistorictimestothepresentday.OverthevastareafromChineseTurkistantoJapan,fromManchuriatothenorthernhalfofFrenchIndochina,thesamesystemofconstructionisprevalent;andthiswastheareaofChineseculturalinfluence.Thatthissystemofconstructioncouldperpetuateitselfformorethanfourthousandyearsoversuchavastterritoryandstillremainalivingarchitecture,retainingitsprincipalcharacteristicsinspiteofrepeatedforeigninvasions—military,intellectual,andspiritual—isaphenomenoncomparableonlytothecontinuityofthecivilizationofwhichitisanintegralpart.

—Liang,Ssu-ch'eng,1984[1]

Throughoutthe20thCentury,Western-trainedChinesearchitectshaveattemptedtocombinetraditionalChinesedesignsintomodernarchitecture（usuallygovernment）,withonlylimitedsuccess.Moreover,thepressureforurbandevelopmentthroughoutcontemporaryChinarequiredhigherspeedofconstructionandhigherfloorarearatio,whichmeansthatinthegreatcitiesthedemandfortraditionalChinesebuildings,whicharenormallylessthan3levels,hasdeclinedinfavorofmodernarchitecture.However,thetraditionalskillsofChinesearchitecture,includingmajorandminorcarpentry,masonry,andstonemasonry,arestillappliedtotheconstructionofvernaculararchitectureinthevastruralareainChina.

Features

Architecturalbilateralsymmetry

AnimportantfeatureinChinesearchitectureisitsemphasisonarticulationandbilateralsymmetry,whichsignifiesbalance.BilateralsymmetryandthearticulationofbuildingsarefoundeverywhereinChinesearchitecture,frompalacecomplexestohumblefarmhouses.Whenpossible,plansforrenovationand

constructingbuildingsorbuildingcomplexesthattakeupanentirepropertybutencloseopenspaceswithinitself.Theseenclosedspacescomeintwoforms,the:

[2]

Courtyard（院）:

TheuseofopencourtyardsisacommonfeatureinmanytypesofChinesearchitectures.ThisisbestexemplifiedintheSiheyuan,whichconsistsofanemptyspacesurroundedbybuildingsconnectedwithoneanothereitherdirectlyorthroughverandas.

"Skywell"（天井）:

AlthoughlargeopencourtyardsarelesscommonlyfoundinsouthernChinesearchitecture,theconceptofan"openspace"surroundedbybuildings,whichisseeninnortherncourtyardcomplexes,canbeseeninthesouthernbuildingstructureknownasthe"skywell".Thisstructureisessentiallyarelativelyenclosedcourtyardformedfromtheintersectionsofcloselyspacedbuildingsandoffersmallopeningtotheskythroughtheroofspacefromthefloorup.

Theseenclosuresserveintemperatureregulationandinventingthebuildingcomplexes.Northerncourtyardsaretypicallyopenandfacingthesouthtoallowthemaximumexposureofthebuildingwindowsandwallstothesunwhilekeepingthecoldnorthernwindsout.Southernskywellsarerelativelysmallandservestocollectrainwaterfromtherooftops.TheyperformthesamedutiesasRomanimpluviumswhilerestrictingtheamountofsunlightthatentersthebuilding.Skywellsalsoserveasventsforrisinghotair,whichdrawscoolairfromthelowerstoriesofthehouseandallowsforexchangeofcoolairwiththeoutside.

Hierarchy

TheprojectedhierarchyandimportanceandusesofbuildingsintraditionalChinesearchitecturearebasedonthestrictplacementofbuildingsinaproperty/complex.Buildingswithdoorsfacingthefrontofthepropertyareconsideredmoreimportantthanthosefacingthesides.Buildingsfacingawayfromthefrontofthepropertyaretheleastimportant.

South-facingbuildingsintherearandmoreprivatelocationofthepropertywithhigherexposuretosunlightareheldinhigheresteemandreservedforeldermembersofthefamilyorancestralplaques.Buildingsfacingeastandwestaregenerallyforjuniormembersofthefamily,whilebuildingsnearthefrontaretypicallyforservantsandhiredhelp.[4]

Front-facingbuildingsinthebackofpropertiesareusedparticularlyforroomsofcelebratoryritesandfortheplacementofancestralhallsandplaques.Inmultiplecourtyardcomplexes,centralcourtyardsandtheirbuildingsareconsideredmoreimportantthanperipheralones,thelattertypicallybeingusedasstorageorservants’roomsorkitchens.[2]

Horizontalemphasis

ClassicalChinesebuildings,especiallythoseofthewealthy,arebuiltwithanemphasisonbreadthandlessonheight,featuringanenclosedheavyplatformandalargeroofthatfloatsoverthisbase,withtheverticalwallsnotwellemphasized.ThiscontrastsWesternarchitecture,whichtendstogrowinheightanddepth.Chinesearchitecturestressesthevisualimpactofthewidthofthebuildings.

ThehallsandpalacesintheForbiddenCity,forexample,haveratherlowceilingswhencomparedtoequivalentstatelybuildingsintheWest,buttheirexternalappearancessuggesttheall-embracingnatureofimperialChina.TheseideashavefoundtheirwayintomodernWesternarchitecture,forexamplethroughtheworkofJørnUtzon.[5]Thisofcoursedoesnotapplytopagodas,whicharelimitedtoreligiousbuildingcomplexes.

Cosmologicalconcepts

ChinesearchitecturefromearlytimesusedconceptsfromChinesecosmologysuchasfengshui（geomancy）andTaoismtoorganizeconstructionandlayoutfromcommonresidencestoimperialandreligiousstructures.[2]Thisincludestheuseof:

Screenwallstofacethemainentranceofthehouse,whichstemsfromthebeliefthatevilthingstravelinstraightlines.

Talismansandimageryofgoodfortune:

Doorgodsdisplayedondoorwaystowardoffevilandencouragetheflowofgoodfortune

ThreeanthropomorphicfiguresrepresentingFuLuShou（福祿壽fú-lù-shòu）starsareprominentlydisplayed,sometimeswiththeproclamation"thethreestarsarepresent"（三星在sān-xīng-zài）

Animalsandfruitsthatsymbolizegoodfortuneandprosperity,suchasbatsandpomegranates,respectively.Theassociationisoftendonethroughrebuses.

Orientingthestructurewithitsbacktoelevatedlandscapeandensuringthatthereiswaterinthefront.Considerationsarealsomadesuchthatthegenerallywindowlessbackofthestructurefacesthenorth,wherethewindiscoldestinthewinter.

Ponds,pools,wells,andotherwatersourcesareusuallybuiltintothestructure.

Theuseofcertaincolors,numbersandthecardinaldirectionsintraditionalChinesearchitecturereflectedthebeliefinatypeofimmanence,wherethenatureofathingcouldbewhollycontainedinitsownform.AlthoughtheWesterntraditiongraduallydevelopedabodyofarchitecturalliterature,littlewaswrittenonthesubjectinChina,andtheearliesttext,theKaogongji,wasneverdisputed.However,ideasaboutcosmicharmonyandtheorderofthecitywereusuallyinterpretedattheirmostbasiclevel,soareproductionofthe"ideal"cityneverexisted.Beijingasreconstructedthroughoutthe15thand16thcenturyremainsoneofthebestexamplesoftraditionalChinesetownplanning.

Construction

Materialsandhistory

Unlikeotherbuildingconstructionmaterials,oldwoodenstructuresoftendonotsurvivebecausetheyaremorevulnerabletoweatheringandfiresandarenaturallysubjectedtorottingovertime.Althoughnow-nonexistentwoodenresidentialtowers,watchtowers,andpagodaspredateditbycenturies,theSongyuePagodabuiltin523istheoldestextantpagodainChina;itsuseofbrickinsteadofwoodhadmuchtodowithitsendurancethroughoutthecenturies.FromtheTangDynasty（618–907）onwards,brickandstonearchitecturegraduallybecamemorecommonandreplacedwoodenedifices.TheearliestexamplesofthistransitioncanbeseeninbuildingprojectssuchastheZhaozhouBridgecompletedin605ortheXumiPagodabuiltin636,yetstoneandbrickarchitectureisknowntohavebeenusedinsubterraneantombarchitectureofearlierdynasties.

Intheearly20thcenturytherewerenoknownfullywood-constructedTangDynastybuildingsthatstillexisted;theoldestsofardiscoveredwasthe1931findofGuanyinPavilionatDuleMonastery,dated984duringtheSong.[8]ThiswasuntilthearchitecturalhistoriansLiangSicheng（1901–1972）,LinHuiyin（1904–1955）,MoZongjiang（1916–1999）,andJiYutang（1902–c.1960s）discoveredthattheGreatEastHallofFoguangTempleonMountWutaiinShanxiwasreliablydatedtotheyear857inJune1937.[8]Thegroundfloordimensionsforthismonastichallmeasures34mby17.66m（111ftby57ft）.[9]AyearafterthediscoveryatFoguang,themainhallofnearbyNanchanTempleonMountWutaiwasreliablydatedtotheyear782,[10]whileatotalofsixTangerawoodenbuildingshavebeenfoundbythe21stcentury.[11]TheoldestexistentfullywoodenpagodathathassurvivedintactisthePagodaofFogongTempleoftheLiaoDynasty,locatedinYingCountyofShanxi.WhiletheEastHallofFoguangTemplefeaturesonlyseventypesofbracketarmsinitsconstruction,the11thcenturyPagodaofFogongTemplefeaturesatotaloffifty-four.[12]

TheearliestwallsandplatformsinChinawereoframmedearthconst