语言学期末这份是正确的.docx

语言学期末这份是正确的.docx

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语言学期末这份是正确的

一.Whatislanguage?

1.Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.

Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.

Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare

Vocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.

Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.

Thedesign/defining/distinctivefeaturesofhumanlanguage:

Arbitrariness（任意性）

Productivity/Creativity（创造性）

Duality（二元性、二层性）

Displacement（移位性）

Culturaltransmission（文化传递性）

2.语言&言语

Langue---thelanguagesystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakers

Parole---theconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.

3.Synchronicvs.diachronic

Synchronic（linguistics）---languagesarestudiedatatheoreticpointintime:

onedescribesa‘state’oflanguage,disregardingwhateverchangesmightbetakingplace.

Diachronic----languagesarestudiedfrompointofviewoftheirhistoricaldevelopment–forexample,thechangeswhichhavetakenplacebetweenOldandModernEnglishcouldbedescribedinphonological,grammaticalandsemanticterms.

2．语音学（选择题）

3．音位学Phonology

1.音位变体

Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.

同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段.例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的[th],在stand里是不送气的[t]，在eighth里是齿化的[t],在cotton里是鼻除阻的[tn]，在bottle里是边除阻的[tl],在hit里则表现为声门化的[t].此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式.这样一套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体.把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布.

[p,ph]aretwodifferentphones音子andarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.

Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution互补分布becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:

[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces.

/p/®[p]/ [s]_____

[ph]elsewhere

2.互补分布Complementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.

dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].

4．形态学

**Morphemes:

Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammatical

systemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:

chairman:

chair,man

townhall:

town,hall

boys:

boy,-s

checking:

check,-ing

disappointment:

dis-,appoint,-ment

Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme自由语素和粘着语素

Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.

Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.

**Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme派生语素和屈折性语素

Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.correct---incorrect,edit---co-edit,modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.

Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.

a）number:

tablesmatchesfactories

b）person,finitenessandaspect:

talk/talks/talking/talked

c）case:

John/John’s

d）comparison:

tall/taller/tallest

1.构词法wordformation

●Compound：

smartphone,cutting-edge,domainname,cloakroom 衣帽间,state-of-the-art顶尖的,nursinghome,self-control,armchair

●Derivation派生法：

un+conscious→unconscious,

nation+al→national,

national+ize→nationalize

nationalize+ation→nationalization

●Invention（新创词语）:

Facebook,Twitter,drones,microblog,e-tailer,smartphone,tsunami

●Blending（混成法）:

smoke+fog>smog

motorist+hotel>motel

breakfast+lunch>brunch

modulator+demodulator>modem

smoking+flirting>smirting边吸烟边跟异性搭讪

advertisement+editorial>advertorial

education+entertainment>edutainment

information+commercial>infomercial

information+entertainment>Infortainment新闻娱乐化

in+love+individual>inlovidual独立爱人

●Abbreviation（缩写词）:

advertisement--ad;helicopter--copter;influenza--flu

●Acronym（缩写词）:

WB---WorldBankCIA---CentralIntelligenceAgencyWTO--

CPI---ConsumerPriceIndex消费者物价指数

UNESCO---联合国教科文组织

NEET---NotinEducation,EmploymentorTraining啃老族

●Clipping（截断法）:

Back-clippings:

ad（vertisement）,chimp（anzee）,

deli（catessen）,hippo（potamus）,piano（forte）,

reg（ulation）s,app（lication）program（应用软件）

Fore-clippings:

（ham）burger,（omni）bus,（violin）cello,（heli）copter,（alli）gator,（tele）phone,（earth）quake.

Fore-and-aftclippings:

（in）flu（enza）,（de）tec（tive）.

●Back-formation（逆构词法）：

gangling→gangleeditor→edit

peddler→peddlehawker→hawk

enthusiasm→enthuselaser→lase

calmative→calmfreeassociation→free-associate

●Analogicalcreation（类推构词）：

work:

wrought>worked；beseech:

besought>beseeched；

slay:

slew>slayed?

●Borrowing（借词）:

Borrowfromotherlanguages.

Chinese:

kungfu,tea,tofu,typhoon;Japanese:

Tsunami

Indian:

bungalow,jungle,yoga

5．句法学

1.画树形图

2.Chomsky提出：

形式主义的转换生成语法TransformationalGenerativeGrammar、UniversalGrammar、 LAD语言习得机制 languageacquisition

3.表层结构和深层结构Deepstructure&surfacestructure

Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:

Johniseasytoplease.

Johniseagertoplease.

Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.

Consideronemoresentence:

Flyingplanescanbedangerous.

Itcanmeaneitherthat:

ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.

Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.

Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.

6．语义学Semantics

1.Semanticsistraditionallydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.

Typesofmeaning:

●Grammaticalmeaning

●Lexicalmeaning

1　Conceptualmeaning概念意义

2　Associationmeaning联想意义

a.Connotativemeaning内涵意义

b.Socialmeaning社会意义

c.Affectivemeaning情感意义

d.Reflectedmeaning反射意义

e.Collocatinvemeaning搭配意义

3　Thematicmeaning主位意义

（1）Conceptualmeaning概念意义

Alsocalled‘denotative’（外延的）or‘cognitive’meaning.

　Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.

　Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.

（2）Connotativemeaning（内涵意义）

Thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.

（3）Socialmeaning

Whatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.

（4）Affectivemeaning（情感意义）

Reflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.

（5）Reflectedmeaning

Arisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.反映意义指的是一个语词或语句除了自身的意义以外还顺带隐射或隐含了其他意义，或联想意义即引起读者联想的意义。

　Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice’,youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.

　Manytabootermsareresultofthis.

（6）Collocativemeaning

Theassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.

　pretty:

girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,color,village,etc.

　handsome:

boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.

（7）Thematicmeaning

Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.

Mrs.BessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.

ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrs.BessieSmith.

Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.

Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.

2.Senserelations

Majorsenserelations:

Synonymy同义关系,Antonymy反义关系,Polysemy一词多义关系,Homonymy同音/同形异义关系,Hyponymy上下意义关系

Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

1）Dialectalsynonyms方言/地域同义词----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline,lift--elevator;

2）Stylisticsynonyms文体/风格同义词----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…

3）Synonymsthatdifferinconnotation感情同义词----thesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,includingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,e.g.Thetwowordscollaboratorandaccomplicesynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningof“apersonwhohelpsanother”,buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsthgood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.

Antonymy:

Thetermisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.

1）Gradableantonyms等级反义关系----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…

2）Complementaryantonyms互补反义关系----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.