语言学期末这份是正确的.docx

1、语言学期末这份是正确的一. What is language?1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Systematic- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; cant be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Arbitrary- no intrinsic connec

2、tion between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Symbolic- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”-Shakespeare Vocal- the primary medium is sound for all languages; w

3、riting system came much later than spoken form. Human-specific- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.The design/defining /distinctive features of human language:Arbitrariness (任意性）Productivity/Creativity(创造性）Duality （二元性、二层性）D

4、isplacement （移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传递性）2.语言&言语Langue- the language system shared by a community of speakersParole- the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.3. Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic (linguistics)-languages are studied at a theoretic point in time:

5、 one describes a state of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place.Diachronic-languages are studied from point of view of their historical development for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical a

6、nd semantic terms.2语音学（选择题）3音位学 Phonology1. 音位变体Allophones - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.同一音位在不同环境中表现出来的两个或多个语音上不同的音段. 例如，在英语里，音位/t/在tin里是送气的th, 在 stand里是不送气的t，在eighth里是齿化的t,在cotton里是鼻除阻的tn，在bottle里是边除阻的tl,在hit里则表现为声门化的t. 此外，随着说话人口音的不同，可能还会有其他的语音形式. 这样一

7、套在说话人话语中的语音形式就是音位/t/的音位变体. 把两个音素划归成同一音位的两个音位变体必须满足语音相似性原则，而且它们不能处于对比分布. p, ph are two different phones 音子and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution 互补分布because the

8、y never occur in the same context: p occurs after s while ph occurs in other places. /p/ p /s _ ph elsewhere2.互补分布Complementary distribution-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & cle

9、ar l, aspirated p & unaspirated p. 4形态学*Morphemes: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.The components of a word are known as morphemes. They themselves cannot be further analyzed: chairman: chair, man townhall: town, hall boys: boy,

10、 -s checking: check, -ing disappointment: dis-, appoint, -mentFree morpheme & bound morpheme自由语素和粘着语素Free morpheme-is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme-is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand b

11、y themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc. *Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme派生语素和屈折性语素Derivational morphemes- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. correct-incorrect, edit-co-edit, moder

12、n-modernize, length-lengthen, fool-foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables m

13、atches factories b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/Johns d) comparison: tall/taller/tallest1. 构词法 word formation Compound：smartphone, cutting-edge, domain name, cloakroom衣帽间, state-of-the-art顶尖的, nursing home, self-control, armchair Derivation派生法：un + consciou

14、s unconscious, nation + al national, national + ize nationalize nationalize + ation nationalization Invention(新创词语): Facebook, Twitter, drones, microblog, e-tailer, smartphone, tsunami Blending(混成法): smoke + fog smogmotorist + hotel motelbreakfast + lunch brunchmodulator + demodulator modemsmoking +

15、 flirting smirting 边吸烟边跟异性搭讪advertisement + editorial advertorialeducation + entertainment edutainmentinformation + commercial infomercialinformation + entertainment Infortainment 新闻娱乐化in + love + individual inlovidual 独立爱人 Abbreviation(缩写词): advertisement-ad; helicopter-copter; influenza-flu Acrony

16、m (缩写词): WB- World Bank CIA - Central Intelligence Agency WTO-CPI -Consumer Price Index 消费者物价指数UNESCO-联合国教科文组织NEET-Not in Education, Employment or Training 啃老族 Clipping(截断法): Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), hippo(potamus), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s, app(lication) pro

17、gram (应用软件) Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake.Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive). Back-formation (逆构词法)：gangling gangle editor editpeddler peddle hawker hawkenthusiasm enthuse laser lasecalmative calm free as

18、sociation free-associate Analogical creation (类推构词)： work: wrought worked；beseech:besought beseeched； slay: slew slayed? Borrowing (借词): Borrow from other languages. Chinese: kung fu, tea, tofu, typhoon ; Japanese: Tsunami Indian: bungalow, jungle, yoga5句法学1.画树形图2. Chomsky提出：形式主义的转换生成语法Transformatio

19、nal Generative Grammar、Universal Grammar、LAD语言习得机制language acquisition3. 表层结构和深层结构Deep structure & surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite

20、different deep structures. Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that: if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure-formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads sub-categorization proper

21、ties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Surface structure-corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.6语义

22、学Semantics1.Semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning in language. Types of meaning: Grammatical meaning Lexical meaning1Conceptual meaning 概念意义2Association meaning 联想意义a. Connotative meaning 内涵意义b. Social meaning 社会意义c. Affective meaning 情感意义d. Reflected meaning 反射意义e. Collocatinve

23、 meaning搭配意义3Thematic meaning 主位意义(1) Conceptual meaning 概念意义Also called denotative(外延的) or cognitive meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning(内涵意义) The communicative value

24、 an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.(3) Social meaning What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.(4) Affective meaning(情感意义) Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the lis

25、tener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.反映意义指的是一个语词或语句除了自身的意义以外还顺带隐射或隐含了其他意义，或联想意义 即引起读者联想的意义。 When you hear click the mouse twice, you think of G

26、erry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, color, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car

27、, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs. Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs. Bessie Smith.They stopped at t

28、he end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.2. Sense relationsMajor sense relations: Synonymy同义关系, Antonymy反义关系, Polysemy一词多义关系, Homonymy同音/同形异义关系 , Hyponymy上下意义关系 Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

29、 1) Dialectal synonyms方言/地域同义词- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrolgasoline, lift-elevator; 2) Stylistic synonyms文体/风格同义词-synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in connotation 感情同

30、义词-these are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, including the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, e.g. The two words collaborator and accomplice synonymous in that they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they dif

31、fer in that a collaborator helps another in doing sth good, while an accomplice helps another in a criminal act.Antonymy: The term is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.1) Gradable antonyms等级反义关系-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, 2) Complementary antonyms互补反义关系-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g.