胡壮麟 Chapter 12.docx

胡壮麟 Chapter 12.docx

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胡壮麟Chapter12

Chapter12

TheoriesofLinguistics

⏹Functionalism

⏹Formalism

1.Thefunctionalperspective

⏹ThePragueSchool

⏹TheLondonSchool

1.1ThePragueSchool

⏹PragueLinguisticCircle:

⏹StartedbyV.Mathesius（1882-1946）in1926,withsuchactivistsasR.Jacobson（1896-1982）,N.Trubetzkoy（1890-1938）andlaterJ.Firbas（1921-2000）.

⏹TheCirclestoodattheheartofimportantdevelopmentsinstructurallinguisticsandsemioticsinthe1930's.

⏹Threeimportantpoints:

⏹Stressedsynchroniclinguistics,butnotrigidlyseparatedfromdiachronicstudies.

⏹LissystemicinthatnoelementofLcanbesatisfactorilyanalysedorevaluatedinisolationandassessmentcanonlybemadeifitsrelationshipisestablishedwiththecoexistingelementsinthesamelanguagesystem.

⏹Lisfunctionalinthatitisatoolforperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.

PragueSchoolPhonology

⏹N.Trubetzkoy:

PrincipleofPhonology（1939）.

⏹Phonetics&phonology:

differentforparole&langue.

⏹Phoneme:

anabstractunitofthesoundsystem.

⏹Distinctivefeatures:

phonologicaloppositions.

Trubetzkoy’scontributions

⏹Showeddistinctivefunctionsofspeechsoundsandgaveanaccuratedefinitionofthephoneme.

⏹Definedthesphereofphonologicalstudies.

⏹Revealedinterdependentsyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsbetweenphonemes.

⏹Putforwardasetofmethodologiesforphonologicalstudies.

⏹Analysisofutterances（ortexts）intermsoftheinformationtheycontain.

⏹Theroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.

⏹Asentencecontainsapointofdepartureandagoalofdiscourse.Thepointofdeparture,calledthetheme,isthegroundonwhichthespeakerandthehearermeet.

⏹Thegoalofdiscourse,calledtherheme,presentstheveryinformationthatistobeimpartedtothehearer.

⏹Movementfromthemetorhemerevealsthemovementoftheminditself.

⏹Therefore,thefunctionalsentenceperspective（FSP）aimstodescribehowinformationisdistributedinsentences.

⏹Itdealsparticularlywiththeeffectofthedistributionofknown（given）infoandnewinfoindiscourse.

⏹Newinfo:

tobetransmittedtothereaderorhearer.

⏹Sallystandsonthetable.

ThemeRheme

⏹OnthetablestandsSally.

ThemeRheme

Threelevelsofasentence

⏹GrammaticalSentencePattern（GSP）

⏹SemanticSentencePattern（SSP）

⏹CommunicativeSentencePattern（CSP）

⏹Johnhaswrittenanovel.

SubjectVerbObject（GSP）

AgentActionGoal（SSP）

ThemeTransitionRheme（CSP）

Communicativedynamism（CD）

⏹J.Firbas

⏹Linguisticcommunicationisdynamic,notstatic.

⏹CDmeasurestheamountofinfoanelementcarriesinasentence.ThedegreeofCDistheeffectcontributedbyalinguisticelement.Forexample,

⏹Hewascross.

⏹CD:

ThelowestdegreeofCDiscarriedbyhe,andthehighestdegreeofCDiscarriedbycross,withthedegreecarriedbywasrankingbetweenthem.

⏹NormallythesubjectcarriesalowerdegreeofCDthantheverband/ortheobjectand/oradverbialprovidedeithertheverbortheobjectand/oradverbialarecontextuallyindependent.

⏹Thisisbecauseaknownorunknownagentexpressedbythesubjectappearstobecommunicativelylessimportantthananunknownactionexpressedbythefiniteverband/oranunknowngoal（objectoradverbialofplace）atortowardswhichtheactionisdirected.

⏹Forexample,

⏹Amanbrokeintothehouseandstoleallthemoney.

⏹Theultimatepurposeofthecommunicationistostatetheactionand/oritsgoal,nottheagent.

⏹However,ifthesubjectisfollowedbyaverbexpressing“existenceorappearanceonthescene”andiscontextuallyindependent,thenitwillcarrythehighestdegreeofCD,becauseanunknownpersonorthingappearingonthesceneiscommunicativelymoreimportantthantheactofappearingandthesceneitself,e.g.

⏹Anoldmanappearedinthewaitingroomatfiveo’clock.

⏹Ifthesubjectiscontextuallydependent,acontextuallyindependentadverbialoftimeorplacebecomesanimportantlocalandtemporalspecification,carryinggreaterdegreeofCDthanboththesubjectandthefiniteverb,asin

⏹Theoldmanwassittinginthewaitingroom.

1.2TheLondonSchool

⏹B.Malinowski（1884-1942）,professorofanthropology（1927）.

⏹J.R.Firth（1890-1960）,thefirstprofessoroflinguisticsintheUK（1944）.

⏹M.A.K.Halliday（1925-）,studentofFirth.

⏹AllthreestressedtheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectofL.

Malinowski’stheories

⏹Language“istoberegardedasamodeofaction,ratherthanasacounterpartofthought”.

⏹Themeaningofanutterancecomesfromitsrelationtothesituationalcontextinwhichitoccurs.

⏹Threetypesofsituationalcontext:

⏹situationsinwhichspeechinterrelateswithbodilyactivity;

⏹narrativesituations;

⏹situationsinwhichspeechisusedtofillaspeechvacuum—phaticcommunion.

Firth’stheories

⏹RegardedLasasocialprocess,ameansofsociallife.

⏹Inordertolive,humanbeingshavetolearnandlearningLisameansofparticipationinsocialactivities.

⏹Lisameansofdoingthingsandofmakingothersdothings,ameansofactingandliving.

⏹Lisbothinbornandacquired.

⏹TheobjectoflinguisticstudyisLinuse.

⏹ThegoaloflinguisticinquiryistoanalysemeaningfulelementsofLinordertoestablishcorrespondingrelationsbetweenlinguisticandnon-linguisticelements.

⏹ThemethodoflinguisticstudyistodecideonthecompositeelementsofL,explaintheirrelationsonvariouslevels,andultimatelyexplicatetheinternalrelationsbetweentheseelementsandhumanactivitiesintheenvironmentoflanguageuse.

⏹Firthattemptedtointegratelinguisticstudieswithsociologicalstudies:

⏹becausehumanbeingsareinseparablefromculturalvalues,andLisanimportantpartofculturalvalues,linguisticscanhelprevealthesocialnatureofhumanbeings.

⏹Meaningisuse,thusdefiningmeaningastherelationshipbetweenanelementatanylevelanditscontextonthatlevel.

⏹Thereforethemeaningofanysentenceconsistsoffiveparts:

⏹therelationshipofeachphonemetoitsphoneticcontext;

⏹therelationshipofeachlexicalitemtotheothersinthesentence;

⏹themorphologicalrelationsofeachword;

⏹thesentencetypeofwhichthegivensentenceisanexample;

⏹therelationshipofthesentencetoitscontextofsituation.

⏹Inanalysingtypicalcontextofsituation,onehastocarryouttheanalysisonfourlevels:

⏹Internalrelationsofthetext:

⏹syntagmaticrelationsinstructure

⏹paradigmaticrelationsinsystem

⏹Internalrelationsofthecontextofsituation:

⏹relationsbetweentextandnon-linguisticelements

⏹analyticalrelationsbetweenelementsofthetextandelementswithinthesituation

⏹Amodelcoveringboththesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontextofatext:

⏹Therelevantfeaturesoftheparticipants:

persons,personalities

⏹verbalactionofparticipants

⏹non-verbalactionofparticipants

⏹Therelevanttopics,inc.objects,events,andnon-linguistic,non-humanevents.

⏹Theeffectsoftheverbalaction.

⏹Prosodicanalysis:

prosodicphonology

⏹Sinceanyhumanutteranceiscontinuousspeechflowmadeupofatleastonesyllable,itcannotbecutintoindependentunits.Merephoneticandphonologicaldescriptionsareinsufficient.

⏹Itisnotphonemesthatmakeuptheparadigmaticrelations,butPhonematicUnits,thefeaturesofwhicharefewerthanthoseofphonemesandarecalledprosodicunits.

⏹Hedidnotdefineprosodicunits,buthisdiscussionindicatesthattheyincludesuchfeaturesasstress,length,nasalisation,palatalisation,andaspiration.

⏹Inanycase,thesefeaturescannotbefoundinonephonematicunitalone.

Systemic-functionalgrammar

⏹MAKHalliday（1925-）.

⏹Twocomponentsandinseparableparts:

⏹systemicgrammar:

internalrelationsinLasasystemnetwork,meaningpotential.

⏹functionalgrammar:

Lasameansofsocialinteraction,usesorfunctionsoflanguageform.

Systemicgrammar

finite…

clause

nonfinite…

nominal-group…

groupadjectival-adverbial-group…

prep-phrase…

word…

Functionalgrammar

⏹Ideationalfunction（experiential&logical）:

toconveynewinfo,communicateacontentunknowntothehearer

⏹Interpersonalfunction:

toexpresssocialandpersonalrelations

⏹Textualfunction:

tomakeanystretchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.

2.GenerativeGrammar

⏹NOAMCHOMSKY（1928-）,instituteprofessoratMIT.Linguist,philosopher,andpoliticalactivist.

⏹TheLogicalStructureofLinguisticTheory（1955/1975）

⏹SyntacticStructures（1957）

⏹AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax（1965）

⏹CartesianLinguistics（1966）

⏹TheSoundPatternofEnglish（1968）

⏹LanguageandMind（1968/1972/2006）

⏹ReflectionsonLanguage（1975）

⏹RulesandRepresentations（1980）

⏹LecturesonGovernmentandBinding（1981）

⏹KnowledgeofLanguage（1986）

⏹Barriers（1986）

⏹LanguageandProblemsofKnowledge（1988）

⏹LanguageandThought（1993）

⏹TheMinimalistProgram（1995）

⏹NewHorizonsintheStudyofLanguageandMind（2000）

⏹OnNatureandLanguage（2002）

2.1Earlytheories（1957）

⏹Innatenesshypothesis

⏹Languageacquisitionmechanism

⏹Competenceandperformance

⏹Transformations:

generatinganinfinitesetofsentencesfromafinitesetofelements

⏹Deepstructureandsurfacestructure

⏹Phrasestructurerules

⏹Transformations

Phrasestructurerules

⏹SNPVP

⏹VPVNP

⏹NPDetN

⏹Vact,beat,catch,dive,…

⏹Nman,boy,book,flower,...

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