LanguageCultureSTD.docx

LanguageCultureSTD.docx

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LanguageCultureSTD

OxfordIntroductionstoLanguageStudy

–SeriesEditor:

H.G.Widdowson

LanguageAndCulture

ByClairKramsch

（ClaireKramschisProfessorof

GermanandForeignLanguageAcquisitionatthe

UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley）

上海外语教育出版社,March2000

Contents

Preface

SECTION1

Survey

1Therelationshipoflanguageandculture

Nature,culture,language

Communitiesoflanguageusers

Imaginedcommunities

Insiders/outsiders

Linguisticrelativity

TheSapir-Whorfhypothesis

Summary

2Meaningassign

Thelinguisticsign

Themeaningofsigns

Culturalencodings

Semanticcohesion

Thenon-arbitrarynatureofsigns

Symbols

Summary

3Meaningasaction

Contextofsituation,contextofculture

Structuresofexpectation

Contextualizationcues,situatedinferences

Pragmaticcoherence

Theco-operativeprinciple

Participants'rolesandtheco-constructionofculture

Summary

4Spokenlanguage,oralculture

SpeechandwritingIndicatingstatus

Socialpositionings

Protectingface

Conversationalstyle

Narrativestyle

Summary

5Printlanguage,literateculture

Writtenlanguage,textualculture

Printandpower

Socialconstructionofliteracy

Textanddiscourse

Literacyevent,priortext,pointofview

GenreSummary

6Languageandculturalidentity

Culturalidentity

Culturalstereotypes

Languagecrossingasactofidentity

Linguisticnationism

Standardlanguage,culturaltotem

Linguisticandculturalimperialism

Summary

7CurrentIssues

Whoisanativespeaker?

Culturalauthenticity

Cross-cultural,intercultural,multicultural

Thepoliticsofrecognition

SECTION2Readings

SECTION3References

SECTION4Glossary

Preface

Purpose

Whatjustificationmighttherebeforaseriesofintroductionstolanguagestudy?

Afterall,linguisticsisalreadywellservedwithintroductorytexts:

expositionsandexplanationswhicharecomprehensive,authoritative,andexcellentintheirway.Generallyspeaking,however,theirwayistheessentiallyacademiconeofprovidingadetailedinitiationintothedisciplineoflinguistics,andtheytendtobelengthyandtechnical:

appropriatelyso,giventheirpurpose.Buttheycanbequitedauntingtothenovice.Thereisalsoaneedforamoregeneralandgradualintroductiontolanguage:

transitionaltextswhichwilleasepeopleintoanunderstandingofcomplexideas.Thisseriesofintroductionsisdesignedtoservethisneed.

Theirpurpose,therefore,isnottosupplantbuttosupportthemoreacademicallyorientedintroductionstolinguistics:

topre-paretheconceptualground.Theyarebasedonthebeliefthatitisanadvantagetohaveabroadmapoftheterrainsketchedoutbeforeoneconsidersitsmorespecificfeaturesonasmallerscale,ageneralcontextinreferencetowhichthedetailmakessense.Itissometimesthecasethatstudentsareintroducedtodetailwithoutitbeingmadeclearwhatitisadetailof.Clearly,ageneralunderstandingofideasisnotsufficient:

thereneedstobecloserscrutiny.Butequally,closescrutinycanbemyopicandmeaning-lessunlessitisrelatedtothelargerview.Indeeditcanbesaidthatthepreconditionofmoreparticularenquiryisanawarenessofwhat,ingeneral,theparticularsareabout.Thisseriesisdesignedtoprovidethislarge-scaleviewofdifferentareasoflanguagestudy.Assuchitcanserveaspreliminaryto（andpreconditionfor）themorespecificandspecializedenquirywhichstudentsoflinguisticsarerequiredtoundertake.

Buttheseriesisnotonlyintendedtobehelpfultosuchstudents.Therearemanypeoplewhotakeaninterestinlanguagewithoutbeingacademicallyengagedinlinguisticsperse.Suchpeoplemayrecognizetheimportanceofunderstandinglanguagefortheirownlinesofenquiry,orfortheirownpracticalpurposes,orquitesimplyformakingthemawareofsomethingwhichfiguressocentrallyintheireverydaylives.Iflinguisticshasrevealingandrelevantthingstosayaboutlanguage,thisshouldpresumablynotbeaprivilegedrevelation,butoneaccessibletopeopleotherthanlinguists.Thesebookshavebeensodesignedastoaccommodatethesebroaderintereststoo:

theyaremeanttobeintroductionstolanguagemoregenerallyaswellastolinguisticsasadiscipline.

Design

Thebooksintheseriesareallcuttothesamebasicpattern.Therearefourparts:

Survey,Readings,References,andGlossary.

Survey

Thisisasummaryoverviewofthemainfeaturesoftheareaoflanguagestudyconcerned:

itsscopeandprinciplesofenquiry,itsbasicconcernsandkeyconcepts.Theseareexpressedandexplainedinwayswhichareintendedtomakethemasaccessibleaspossibletopeoplewhohavenopriorknowledgeorexpertiseinthesubject.TheSurveyiswrittentobereadableandisunclutteredbythecustomaryscholarlyreferences.Inthissense,itissimple.Butitisnotsimplistic.Lackofspecialistexpertisedoesnotimplyaninabilitytounderstandorevaluateideas.Ignorancemeanslackofknowledge,notlackofintelligence.TheSurvey,therefore,ismeanttobechallenging.Itdrawsamapofthesubjectareainsuchawayastostimulatethoughtandtoinviteacriticalparticipationintheexplorationofideas.Thiskindofconceptualcartographyhasitsdangersofcourse:

theselectionofwhatissignificant,andthemannerofitsrepresentation,willnotbetothelikingofeverybody,particularlynot,perhaps,tosomeofthoseinsidethediscipline.ButthesesurveysareWritteninthebeliefthattheremustbeanalternativetoatechnicalaccountontheonehandandanidiot'sguideontheotheriflinguisticsistobemaderelevanttopeopleinthewiderworld.

Readings

Somepeoplewillbecontenttoread,andperhapsre-read,thesummarySurvey.OtherswillwanttopursuethesubjectandsowillusetheSurveyasthepreliminaryformoredetailedstudy.TheReadingsprovidethenecessarytransition.Forherethereaderispresentedwithtextsextractedfromthespecialistliterature.ThepurposeoftheseReadingsisquitedifferentfromtheSurvey.Itistogetreaderstofocusonthespecificsofwhatissaid,andhowitissaid,inthesesourcetexts.Questionsareprovidedtofurtherthispurpose:

theyaredesignedtodirectattentiontopointsineachtext,howtheycompareacrosstexts,andhowtheydealwiththeissuesdiscussedintheSurvey.TheideaistogivereadersaninitialfamiliaritywiththemorespecialistidiomofthelinguisticsLiterature,wheretheissuesmightnotbesoreadilyaccessible,andtoencouragethemintoclosecriticalreading.

References

OnewayofmovingintomoredetailedstudyisthroughtheReadings.AnotheristhroughtheannotatedReferencesinthethirdsectionofeachbook.Herethereisaselectionofworks（booksandarticles）forfurtherreading.AccompanyingcommentsindicatehowthesedealinmoredetailwiththeissuesdiscussedinthedifferentchaptersoftheSurvey.

Glossary

CertaintermsintheSurveyappearinbold.Thesearetermsusedinaspecialortechnicalsenseinthediscipline.Theirmeaningsaremadeclearinthediscussion,buttheyarealsoexplainedintheGlossaryattheendofeachbook.TheGlossaryiscross-referencedtotheSurvey,andthereforeservesatthesametimeasanindex.Thisenablesreaderstolocatethetermandwhatitsignifiesinthemoregeneraldiscussion,thereby,ineffect,usingtheSurveyasasummaryworkofreference.

Use

Theserieshasbeendesignedsoastobeflexibleinuse.Eachtitleisseparateandself-contained,withonlythebasicformatincommon.Thefoursectionsoftheformat,asdescribedhere,canbedrawnuponandcombinedindifferentways,asrequiredbytheneeds,orinterests,ofdifferentreaders.SomemaybecontentwiththeSurveyandtheGlossaryandmaynotwanttofollowupthesuggestedReferences.SomemaynotwishtoventureintotheReadings.Again,theSurveymightbeconsideredasappropriatepreliminaryreadingforacourseinappliedlinguisticsorteachereducation,andtheReadingsmoreappropriateforseminardiscussionduringthecourse.Inshort,thenotionofanintroductionwillmeandifferentthingstodifferentpeople,butinallcasestheconcernistoprovideaccesstospecialistknowledgeandstimulateanawarenessofitssignificance.Thisseriesasawholehasbeendesignedtoprovidethisaccessandpromotethisawarenessinrespecttodifferentareasoflanguagestudy.

H.G.WIDDOWSON

Author'sacknowledgments

MyunderstandingofthecomplexrelationshipoflanguageandculturehasbeendeepenedbythegraduatestudentsinappliedlinguisticsatUCBerkeleyGraduateSchoolofEducation,andbyinnumerableresearchersandlanguageteachersaroundtheworld.IamparticularlygratefultoLindavonHoene,EvaLam,MargaretPerrow,SteveThorne,GretaVollmer,whoreaddraftsofthisbook,andtoPeteFarruggioandSorayaSablowhoprovidedsomeofthedataintheSurvey.IwishtothankthestaffofOxfordUniversityPressfortheirpatientandefficientsupport.ThisbookwouldnothavecometopasswithouttheencouragingguidanceofHenryWiddowson,towhomgomydeepestgratitudeandadmiration.HehashelpedmebringintofocusintheverypersonalviewthatIpresenthereonlanguageandcultureinlanguagestudy.

Thisbookisdedicatedtomyfirstgrandson,bornattheconfluenceofsevenlanguagesandcultures.

CLAIREKRAMSCH

Section1SURVEY

1.Therelationshipoflanguageandculture

Languageistheprincipalmeanswherebyweconductoursociallives.Whenitisusedincontextsofcommunication,itisboundupwithcultureinmultipleandcomplexways.

Tobeginwith,thewordspeopleutterrefertocommonexperience.Theyexpressfacts,ideasoreventsthatarecommunicablebecausetheyrefertoastockofknowledgeaboutth