gmat关系词.docx

gmat关系词.docx

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gmat关系词

Theearliestcontroversiesabouttherelationshipbetweenphotographyandartcenteredonwhetherphotography'sfidelitytoappearancesanddependenceonamachineallowedittobeafineartasdistinctfrommerelyapracticalart.Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,thedefenseofphotographywasidenticalwiththestruggletoestablishitasafineart.Againstthechargethatphotographywasasoulless,mechanicalcopyingofreality,photographersassertedthatitwasinsteadaprivilegedwayofseeing,arevoltagainstcommonplacevision,andnolessworthyanartthanpainting.

Ironically,nowthatphotographyissecurelyestablishedasafineart,manyphotographersfinditpretentiousorirrelevanttolabelitassuch.Seriousphotographersvariouslyclaimtobefinding,recording,impartiallyobserving,witnessingevents,exploringthemselves—anythingbutmakingworksofart.Inthenineteenthcentury,photography'sassociationwiththerealworldplaceditinanambivalentrelationtoart;lateinthetwentiethcentury,anambivalentrelationexistsbecauseoftheModernistheritageinart.Thatimportantphotographersarenolongerwillingtodebatewhetherphotographyisorisnotafineart,excepttoproclaimthattheirownworkisnotinvolvedwithart,showstheextenttowhichtheysimplytakeforgrantedtheconceptofartimposedbythetriumphofModernism:

thebettertheart,themoresubversiveitisofthetraditionalaimsofart.

Photographers'disclaimersofanyinterestinmakingarttellusmoreabouttheharriedstatusofthecontemporarynotionofartthanaboutwhetherphotographyisorisnotart.Forexample,thosephotographerswhosupposethat,bytakingpictures,theyaregettingawayfromthepretensionsofartasexemplifiedbypaintingremindusofthoseAbstractExpressionistpainterswhoimaginedtheyweregettingawayfromtheintellectualausterityofclassicalModernistpaintingbyconcentratingonthephysicalactofpainting.Muchofphotography'sprestigetodayderivesfromtheconvergenceofitsaimswiththoseofrecentart,particularlywiththedismissalofabstractartimplicitinthephenomenonofPoppaintingduringthe1960's.Appreciatingphotographsisarelieftosensibilitiestiredofthementalexertionsdemandedbyabstractart.ClassicalModernistpainting—thatis,abstractartasdevelopedindifferentwaysbyPicasso,Kandinsky,andMatisse—presupposeshighlydevelopedskillsoflookingandafamiliaritywithotherpaintingsandthehistoryofart.Photography,likePoppainting,reassuresviewersthatartisnothard;photographyseemstobemoreaboutitssubjectsthanaboutart.

Photography,however,hasdevelopedalltheanxietiesandself-consciousnessofaclassicModernistart.Manyprofessionalsprivatelyhavebeguntoworrythatthepromotionofphotographyasanactivitysubversiveofthetraditionalpretensionsofarthasgonesofarthatthepublicwillforgetthatphotographyisadistinctiveandexaltedactivity—inshort,anart.

1.Inthepassage,theauthorisprimarilyconcernedwith

（A）definingtheModernistattitudetowardart

（B）explaininghowphotographyemergedasafineartafterthecontroversiesofthenineteenthcentury

（C）explainingtheattitudesofseriouscontemporaryphotographerstowardphotographyasartandplacingthoseattitudesintheirhistoricalcontext

（D）definingthevariousapproachesthatseriouscontemporaryphotographerstaketowardtheirartandassessingthevalueofeachofthoseapproaches

（E）identifyingthewaysthatrecentmovementsinpaintingandsculpturehaveinfluencedthetechniquesemployedbyseriousphotographers

2.Whichofthefollowingadjectivesbestdescribes“theconceptofartimposedbythetriumphofModernism”astheauthorrepresentsitinlines13-14?

（A）Objective

（B）Mechanical

（C）Superficial

（D）Dramatic

（E）Paradoxical

3.TheauthorintroducesAbstractExpressionistpainters（lines19）inorderto

（A）provideanexampleofartistswho,likeseriouscontemporaryphotographers,disavowedtraditionallyacceptedaimsofmodernart

（B）callattentiontoartistswhoseworksoftenbearaphysicalresemblancetotheworksofseriouscontemporaryphotographers

（C）setforthananalogybetweentheAbstractExpressionistpaintersandclassicalModernistpainters

（D）provideacontrasttoPopartistsandotherswhocreatedworksthatexemplifytheModernistheritageinart

（E）provideanexplanationofwhyseriousphotography,likeothercontemporaryvisualforms,isnotandshouldnotpretendtobeanart

4.Accordingtotheauthor,thenineteenth—centurydefendersofphotographymentionedinthepassagestressedthatphotographywas

（A）ameansofmakingpeoplefamiliarwithremotelocalesandunfamiliarthings

（B）atechnologicallyadvancedactivity

（C）adeviceforobservingtheworldimpartially

（D）anartcomparabletopainting

（E）anartthatwouldeventuallyreplacethe

traditionalarts

5.Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingbestexplainsthereactionofseriouscontemporaryphotographerstothequestionofwhetherphotographyisanart?

（A）Thephotographers'beliefthattheirrelianceonanimpersonalmachinetoproducetheirartrequiresthesurrenderoftheauthorityoftheirpersonalvision

（B）Thephotographers'fearthatseriousphotographymaynotbeacceptedasanartbythecontemporaryartpublic

（C）TheinfluenceofAbstractExpressionistpaintingandPopArtonthesubjectmatterofthemodernphotograph

（D）Thephotographers'beliefthatthebestartissubversiveofartasithaspreviouslybeendefined

（E）Thenotoriousdifficultyofdefiningartinitsrelationtorealisticrepresentation

6.Accordingtothepassage,certainseriouscontemporaryphotographersexpresslymakewhichofthefollowingclaimsabouttheirphotographs?

（A）Theirphotographscouldbecreatedbyalmostanyonewhohadacameraandthetimetodevotetotheactivity.

（B）Theirphotographsarenotexamplesofartbutareexamplesofthephotographers'impartialobservationoftheworld.

（C）Theirphotographsareimportantbecauseoftheirsubjectsbutnotbecauseoftheresponsestheyevokeinviewers.

（D）Theirphotographsexhibitthesameagelessprinciplesofformandshadingthathavebeenusedinpainting.

（E）Theirphotographsrepresentaconsciousglorificationofthemechanicalaspectsoftwentieth-centurylife.

7.Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthormostprobablyconsidersseriouscontemporaryphotographytobea

（A）contemporaryartthatisstrugglingtobeacceptedasfineart

（B）craftrequiringsensitivitybutbynomeansanart

（C）mechanicalcopyingofreality

（D）modernartthatdisplaystheModernisttendencytotrytosubverttheprevailingaimsofart

（E）modernartthatdisplaysthetendencyofallModernistarttobecomeincreasinglyformalandabstract

Traditionally,pollinationbywindhasbeenviewedasareproductiveprocessmarkedbyrandomeventsinwhichthevagariesofthewindarecompensatedforbythegenerationofvastquantitiesofpollen,sothattheultimateproductionofnewseedsisassuredattheexpenseofproducingmuchmorepollenthanisactuallyused.Becausethepotentialhazardspollengrainsaresubjecttoastheyaretransportedoverlongdistancesareenormous,wind-pollinatedplantshave,intheviewabove,compensatedfortheensuinglossofpollenthroughhappenstancebyvirtueofproducinganamountofpollenthatisonetothreeordersofmagnitudegreaterthantheamountproducedbyspeciespollinatedbyinsects.

However,anumberoffeaturesthatarecharacteristicsofwind-pollinatedplantsreducepollenwaste.Forexample,manywind-pollinatedspeciesfailtoreleasepollenwhenwindspeedsareloworwhenhumidconditionsprevail.Recentstudiessuggestanotherwayinwhichspeciescompensatefortheinefficiencyofwind-pollination.Thesestudiessuggestthatspeciesfrequentlytakeadvantageofthephysicsofpollenmotionbygeneratingspecificaerodynamicenvironmentswithintheimmediatevicinityoftheirfemalereproductiveorgans.Itisthemorphologyoftheseorgansthatdictatesthepatternofairflowdisturbancesthroughwhichpollenmusttravel.Thespeedanddirectionoftheairflowdisturbancescancombinewiththephysicalpropertiesofaspecies'pollentoproduceaspecies-specificpatternofpollencollisiononthesurfacesoffemalereproductiveorgans.Providedthatthesesurfacesarestrategicallylocated,theconsequencesofthiscombinationcansignificantlyincreasethepollen-captureefficiencyofafemalereproductiveorgan.

Acriticalquestionthatremainstobeanswerediswhetherthemorphologicalattributesofthefemalereproductiveorgansofwind-pollinatedspeciesareevolutionaryadaptationstowindpollinationoraremerelyfortuitous.Acompleteresolutionofthequestionisasyetimpossiblesinceadaptationmustbeevaluatedforeachspecieswithinitsownuniquefunctionalcontext.However,itmustbesaidthat,whileevidenceofsuchevolutionaryadaptationsdoesexistinsomespecies,onemustbecarefulaboutattributingmorphologytoadaptation.Forexample,thespiralarrangementofscale-bractcomplexesonovule-bearingpinecones,wherethefemalereproductiveorgansofconifersarelocated,isimportanttotheproductionofairflowpatternsthatspiraloverthecone'ssurfaces,therebypassingairbornepollenfromonescaletothenext.However,thesepatternscannotbeviewedasanadaptationtowindpollinationbecausethespiralarrangementoccursinanumberofnon-wind-pollinatedplantlineagesandisregardedasacharacteristicofvascularplants,ofwhichconifersareonlyonekind,asawhole.Therefore,thespiralarrangementisnotlikelytobetheresultofadirectadaptationtowindpollin