gmat关系词.docx

1、gmat关系词The earliest controversies about the relationship between photography and art centered on whether photographys fidelity to appearances and dependence on a machine allowed it to be a fine art as distinct from merely a practical art. Throughout the nineteenth century, the defense of photography

2、 was identical with the struggle to establish it as a fine art. Against the charge that photography was a soulless, mechanical copying of reality, photographers asserted that it was instead a privileged way of seeing, a revolt against commonplace vision, and no less worthy an art than painting. Iron

3、ically, now that photography is securely established as a fine art, many photographers find it pretentious or irrelevant to label it as such. Serious photographers variously claim to be finding, recording, impartially observing, witnessing events, exploring themselvesanything but making works of art

4、. In the nineteenth century, photographys association with the real world placed it in an ambivalent relation to art; late in the twentieth century, an ambivalent relation exists because of the Modernist heritage in art. That important photographers are no longer willing to debate whether photograph

5、y is or is not a fine art, except to proclaim that their own work is not involved with art, shows the extent to which they simply take for granted the concept of art imposed by the triumph of Modernism: the better the art, the more subversive it is of the traditional aims of art. Photographers discl

6、aimers of any interest in making art tell us more about the harried status of the contemporary notion of art than about whether photography is or is not art. For example, those photographers who suppose that, by taking pictures, they are getting away from the pretensions of art as exemplified by pai

7、nting remind us of those Abstract Expressionist painters who imagined they were getting away from the intellectual austerity of classical Modernist painting by concentrating on the physical act of painting. Much of photographys prestige today derives from the convergence of its aims with those of re

8、cent art, particularly with the dismissal of abstract art implicit in the phenomenon of Pop painting during the 1960s. Appreciating photographs is a relief to sensibilities tired of the mental exertions demanded by abstract art. Classical Modernist paintingthat is, abstract art as developed in diffe

9、rent ways by Picasso, Kandinsky, and Matissepresupposes highly developed skills of looking and a familiarity with other paintings and the history of art. Photography, like Pop painting, reassures viewers that art is not hard; photography seems to be more about its subjects than about art. Photograph

10、y, however, has developed all the anxieties and self-consciousness of a classic Modernist art. Many professionals privately have begun to worry that the promotion of photography as an activity subversive of the traditional pretensions of art has gone so far that the public will forget that photograp

11、hy is a distinctive and exalted activityin short, an art.1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with(A) defining the Modernist attitude toward art(B) explaining how photography emerged as a fine art after the controversies of the nineteenth century(C) explaining the attitudes of seriou

12、s contemporary photographers toward photography as art and placing those attitudes in their historical context(D) defining the various approaches that serious contemporary photographers take toward their art and assessing the value of each of those approaches(E) identifying the ways that recent move

13、ments in painting and sculpture have influenced the techniques employed by serious photographers2. Which of the following adjectives best describes “the concept of art imposed by the triumph of Modernism” as the author represents it in lines13-14?(A) Objective(B) Mechanical(C) Superficial(D) Dramati

14、c(E) Paradoxical3. The author introduces Abstract Expressionist painters (lines 19) in order to(A) provide an example of artists who, like serious contemporary photographers, disavowed traditionally accepted aims of modern art(B) call attention to artists whose works often bear a physical resemblanc

15、e to the works of serious contemporary photographers(C) set forth an analogy between the Abstract Expressionist painters and classical Modernist painters(D) provide a contrast to Pop artists and others who created works that exemplify the Modernist heritage in art(E) provide an explanation of why se

16、rious photography, like other contemporary visual forms, is not and should not pretend to be an art4. According to the author, the nineteenthcentury defenders of photography mentioned in the passage stressed that photography was (A) a means of making people familiar with remote locales and unfamilia

17、r things(B) a technologically advanced activity(C) a device for observing the world impartially(D) an art comparable to painting(E) an art that would eventually replace thetraditional arts5. According to the passage, which of the following best explains the reaction of serious contemporary photograp

18、hers to the question of whether photography is an art?(A)The photographers belief that their reliance on an impersonal machine to produce their art requires the surrender of the authority of their personal vision(B)The photographers fear that serious photography may not be accepted as an art by the

19、contemporary art public(C)The influence of Abstract Expressionist painting and Pop Art on the subject matter of the modern photograph(D)The photographers belief that the best art is subversive of art as it has previously been defined(E)The notorious difficulty of defining art in its relation to real

20、istic representation6. According to the passage, certain serious contemporary photographers expressly make which of the following claims about their photographs?(A)Their photographs could be created by almost anyone who had a camera and the time to devote to the activity.(B)Their photographs are not

21、 examples of art but are examples of the photographers impartial observation of the world.(C)Their photographs are important because of their subjects but not because of the responses they evoke in viewers.(D)Their photographs exhibit the same ageless principles of form and shading that have been us

22、ed in painting.(E) Their photographs represent a conscious glorification of the mechanical aspects of twentieth-century life.7. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably considers serious contemporary photography to be a(A) contemporary art that is struggling to be accepted a

23、s fine art(B) craft requiring sensitivity but by no means an art(C) mechanical copying of reality(D) modern art that displays the Modernist tendency to try to subvert the prevailing aims of art(E) modern art that displays the tendency of all Modernist art to become increasingly formal and abstractTr

24、aditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more polle

25、n than is actually used. Because the potential hazards pollen grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous, wind-pollinated plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen through happenstance by virtue of producing an amount of pollen tha

26、t is one to three orders of magnitude greater than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.However, a number of features that are characteristics of wind-pollinated plants reduce pollen waste. For example, many wind-pollinated species fail to release pollen when wind speeds are low or w

27、hen humid conditions prevail. Recent studies suggest another way in which species compensate for the inefficiency of wind-pollination. These studies suggest that species frequently take advantage of the physics of pollen motion by generating specific aerodynamic environments within the immediate vic

28、inity of their female reproductive organs. It is the morphology of these organs that dictates the pattern of airflow disturbances through which pollen must travel. The speed and direction of the airflow disturbances can combine with the physical properties of a species pollen to produce a species-sp

29、ecific pattern of pollen collision on the surfaces of female reproductive organs. Provided that these surfaces are strategically located, the consequences of this combination can significantly increase the pollen-capture efficiency of a female reproductive organ.A critical question that remains to b

30、e answered is whether the morphological attributes of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated species are evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination or are merely fortuitous. A complete resolution of the question is as yet impossible since adaptation must be evaluated for each species wi

31、thin its own unique functional context. However, it must be said that, while evidence of such evolutionary adaptations does exist in some species, one must be careful about attributing morphology to adaptation. For example, the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on ovule-bearing pine cones,

32、 where the female reproductive organs of conifers are located, is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cones surfaces, thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next. However, these patterns cannot be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral arrangement occurs in a number of non-wind-pollinated plant lineages and is regarded as a characteristic of vascular plants, of which conifers are only one kind, as a whole. Therefore, the spiral arrangement is not likely to be the result of a direct adaptation to wind pollin