contract阅读文章.docx

contract阅读文章.docx

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contract阅读文章

Contract

Inlaw,acontract（orinformallyknownasanagreementinsomejurisdictions）isanagreementhavingalawfulobjectenteredintovoluntarilybytwoormoreparties,eachofwhomintendstocreateoneormorelegalobligationsbetweenthem.Theelementsofacontractare"offer"and"acceptance"by"competentpersons"havinglegalcapacitywhoexchange"consideration"tocreate"mutualityofobligation."

Proofofsomeoralloftheseelementsmaybedoneinwriting,thoughcontractsmaybemadeentirelyorallyorbyconduct.Theremedyforbreachofcontractcanbe"damages"intheformofcompensationofmoneyorspecificperformanceenforcedthroughaninjunction.Bothoftheseremediesawardthepartyatlossthe"benefitofthebargain"orexpectationdamages,whicharegreaterthanmerereliancedamages,asinpromissoryestoppel.Thepartiesmaybenaturalpersonsorjuristicpersons.Acontractisalegallyenforceablepromiseorundertakingthatsomethingwillorwillnotoccur.Thewordpromisecanbeusedasalegalsynonymforcontract,althoughcareisrequiredasapromisemaynothavethefullstandingofacontract,aswhenitisanagreementwithoutconsideration.

Contractlawvariesgreatlyfromonejurisdictiontoanother,includingdifferencesincommonlawcomparedtocivillaw,theimpactofreceivedlaw,particularlyfromEnglandincommonlawcountries,andoflawcodifiedinregionallegislation.RegardingAustralianContractLawforexample,thereare40relevantactswhichimpactontheinterpretationofcontractattheCommonwealth（Federal/national）level,andanadditional26actsatthelevelofthestateofNSW.Inadditionthereareseveralinternationalinstrumentsorconventionswhichareapplicableforinternationaldealings,suchastheUnitedNationsConventiononContractsfortheInternationalSaleofGoods.

History

ContractlawisbasedontheprincipleexpressedintheLatinphrasepactasuntservanda,whichisusuallytranslated"agreementsmustbekept"butmoreliterallymeans"pactsmustbekept".Contractlawcanbeclassified,asishabitualincivillawsystems,aspartofagenerallawofobligations,alongwithtort,unjustenrichment,andrestitution.Thecommonlawofcontractoriginatedwiththewritofassumpsit,whichwasoriginallyatortactionbasedonreliance.

Jurisdictionsvaryintheirprinciplesoffreedomofcontract.IncommonlawjurisdictionssuchasEnglandandWalesandtheUnitedStates,ahighdegreeoffreedomisexpected.Forexample,inAmericanlaw,itwasdeterminedinthe1901caseofHurleyv.Eddingfieldthataphysicianwaspermittedtodenytreatmenttoapatientdespitethelackofotheravailablemedicalassistanceandthepatient'ssubsequentdeath.Thisisincontrasttothecivillaw,whichtypicallyappliescertainoverarchingprinciplestodisputesarisingoutofcontract,asintheFrenchCivilCode.OtherlegalsystemssuchasIslamiclaw,socialistlegalsystems,andcustomarylawhavetheirownvariations.

However,inthecaseoftheUnitedStatestheprincipleoffreedomofcontracthaserodedovertimeduetojudicialdeferencetolegislationaffectingcontracts.Forexample,theCivilRightsActof1964restrictedprivateracialdiscriminationagainstAfrican-Americans.Intheearly20thcenturytheUnitedStatesunderwentthe"Lochnerera",inwhichtheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesstruckdowneconomicregulationsonthebasisoffreedomofcontractandtheDueProcessClause;thesedecisionswereeventuallyoverturnedandtheSupremeCourtestablishedadeferencetolegislativestatutesandregulationswhichrestrictfreedomofcontract.TheU.S.ConstitutioncontainsaContractClause,butthishasbeeninterpretedasonlyrestrictingtheretroactiveimpairmentofcontracts.

Notallagreementsarenecessarilycontractual,asthepartiesgenerallymusthaveanintentiontobelegallybound（orthefunctionalequivalentundertheobjectivetheoryofcontracts）.InAmericanEnglish,agentlemen'sagreementisonewhichisnotintendedtobelegallyenforceable;theequivalentconceptcanbeexpressedanagreement"bindinginhonoronly."

Commercialuse

Contractsarewidelyusedincommerciallaw,andformthelegalfoundationfortransactionsacrosstheworld.Commonexamplesincludeconstructioncontracts,productpurchases（withassociatedwarrantiesofquality）,softwarelicenses,employmentcontracts,insurancepolicies,realestatedeedstotransfertitle,professionalservices,wholesalemerchandisesupply,andvariousotheruses.

Onlinecontractshavebecomecommon.E-signaturelawshavemadetheelectroniccontractandsignatureaslegallyvalidasapapercontract.Ithasbeenestimatedthatroughly110electroniccontractsaresignedeverysecond.

Fromalegalpointofview,inIndia,E-contractsaregovernedbytheIndiancontractact（1872）,accordingtowhichcertainconditionsneedtobefulfilledwhileformulatingavalidcontact.CertainsectionsininformationTechnologyAct（2000）alsoprovideforvalidityofonlinecontract.

Elements

Atcommonlaw,theelementsofacontractareoffer,acceptance,intentiontocreatelegalrelations,andconsideration.

Offerandacceptance

Inorderforacontracttobeformed,thepartiesmustreachmutualassent（alsocalledameetingoftheminds）.Thisistypicallyreachedthroughofferandanacceptancewhichdoesnotvarytheoffer'sterms,whichisknownasthe"mirrorimagerule".Ifapurportedacceptancedoesvarythetermsofanoffer,itisnotanacceptancebutacounterofferand,therefore,simultaneouslyarejectionoftheoriginaloffer.TheUniformCommercialCodedisposesofthemirrorimagerulein§2-207,althoughtheUCConlygovernstransactionsingoodsintheUSA.Asacourtcannotreadminds,theintentofthepartiesisinterpretedobjectivelyfromtheperspectiveofareasonableperson,asdeterminedintheearlyEnglishcaseofSmithvHughes[1871].Itisimportanttonotethatwhereanofferspecifiesaparticularmodeofacceptance,onlyanacceptancecommunicatedviathatmethodwillbevalid.

Contractsmaybebilateralorunilateral.Abilateralcontractisanagreementinwhicheachofthepartiestothecontractmakesapromiseorsetofpromisestoeachother.Forexample,inacontractforthesaleofahome,thebuyerpromisestopaytheseller$200,000inexchangefortheseller'spromisetodelivertitletotheproperty.Thesecommoncontractstakeplaceinthedailyflowofcommercetransactions,andincaseswithsophisticatedorexpensivepromisesmayinvolveextensivenegotiationandvariousconditionprecedentrequirements,whicharerequirementsthatmustbemetforthecontracttobefulfilled.

Lesscommonareunilateralcontractsinwhichonepartymakesapromise,buttheothersidedoesnotpromiseanything.Inthesecases,thoseacceptingtheofferarenotrequiredtocommunicatetheiracceptancetotheofferor.Inarewardcontract,forexample,apersonwhohaslostadogcouldpromisearewardifthedogisfound,throughpublicationororally.Thepaymentcouldbeadditionallyconditionedonthedogbeingreturnedalive.Thosewholearnoftherewardarenotrequiredtosearchforthedog,butifsomeonefindsthedoganddeliversit,thepromisorisrequiredtopay.Inthesimilarcaseofadvertisementsofdealsorbargains,ageneralruleisthatthesearenotcontractualoffersbutmerelyan"invitationtotreat"（orbargain）,buttheapplicabilityofthisruleisdisputedandcontainsvariousexceptions.TheHighCourtofAustraliastatedthatthetermunilateralcontractis"unscientificandmisleading".

Incertaincircumstances,animpliedcontractmaybecreated.Acontractisimpliedinfactifthecircumstancesimplythatpartieshavereachedanagreementeventhoughtheyhavenotdonesoexpressly.Forexample,apatientmayimplicitlyenteracontractbyvisitingadoctorandbeingexamined;ifthepatientrefusestopayafterbeingexamined,thepatienthasbreachedacontractimpliedinfact.Acontractwhichisimpliedinlawisalsocalledaquasi-contract,becauseitisnotinfactacontract;rather,itisameansforthecourtstoremedysituationsinwhichonepartywouldbeunjustlyenrichedwereheorshenotrequiredtocompensatetheother.Quantummeruitclaimsareanexample.

Intentiontobelegallybound

Incommercialagreementsitispresumedthatpartiesintendtobelegallyboundunlessthepartiesexpresslystatetheoppositeasinaheadsofagreementdocument.Forexample,inRose&FrankCovJRCrompton&BrosLtdanagreementbetweentwobusinesspartieswasnotenforcedbecauseitcontainedan'honourclause'whichstatedthepartieswishthattheagreementnotbereviewedorenforcedbyacourt.

Incontrast,domesticandsocialagreementssuchasthosebetweenchildrenandparentsaretypicallyunenforceableonthebasisofpublicpolicy.Forexample,intheEnglishcaseBalfourv.Balfourahusbandagreedtogivehiswife£30amonthwhilehewasawayfromhome,butthecourtrefusedtoenforcetheagreementwhenthehusbandstoppedpaying.Incontrast,inMerrittvMerrittthecourtenforcedanagreementbetweenanestrangedcouple.

Consideration

Considerationissomethingofvaluegivenbyapromissortoapromiseeinexchangeforsomethingofvaluegivenbyapromiseetoapromissor.Typically,thethingofvalueisapayment,althoughitmaybeanact,orforbearancetoact,whenoneisprivilegedtodoso,suchasanadultrefrainingfromsmoking.Thisthingofvalueorforbearancefromsomelegalrightisconsideredtobealegaldetriment.Intheexchangeoflegaldetriments,abargainiscreated.IntheUnitedStates,theemphasishasshiftedtotheprocessofbargainingasexemplifiedbyHamerv.Sidway（1