北科大语言学内部教学教案5考研必备.docx

北科大语言学内部教学教案5考研必备.docx

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北科大语言学内部教学教案5考研必备

Lecture5Morphology

Sofarwehavefinishedwiththesoundsofspeech.Inthisweekandnextweek,we’llbedealingwithwordsinlanguage.ThisiswhatiscoveredbyChapter3inyourtextbook.Inourlecture,we’lldividethischapterintwoparts.Todaywe’llbedealingwiththepartcalled“morphology”andnextweekwe’llbediscussing“lexicalchange”,whichdealswithlanguagevariation.

Thenyoumaywanttoask:

Whatismorphology?

Howisitdifferentfromlexicon?

Morphology（形态学，词法学）,aswehavealreadymentionedinourfirstmeeting,isabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheformationofwords.Lexiconmeanssomethingsimilarto“vocabulary”.Itisnotactuallyabranchoflinguistics,butacomponentoflanguage.Itreferstothecollectionofwordsinalanguage,includingidiomsandcollocations.

Ourlecturetodaywillfocusonmorphology.Butsincemorphologyisthestudyoftheformationofwords,we’llbeginourdiscussionbytalkingaboutwhatisword.

5.1Whatisword?

AsanativespeakerofChinese,everyoneofuscanrecognizeimmediatelywhetherasoundorawrittensymbolisawordornotinChinese.AndaslearnersofEnglish,inmostcases,wearealsocapableofrecognizingEnglishwordseitherinwrittenformorinspokenform.Butitisnotaeasyjobtodefinewhatawordis.

5.1.1Differentsensesof“word”

1）Aphysicallydefinableunit

Isuppose,ifIaskyouwhatwordis,you’remostlikelytotellmethatitisaclusteroflettersseparatedbyblanksfromothersinwriting,oritisaclusterofsoundsseparatedbypausesfromothersinspeaking.Thisisusuallythedefinitiongivenbylaymen.Itcatchesonesenseofword–wordasaphysicallydefinableunit.Butthisdefinitionhasitsproblems:

First,physicallyseparatedunitsarenotnecessarilywords.Forexample,inChinese,theseparatedformslike蟋蟀葡萄，theyarecharacters,buttheycan’tbenamed“words”ontheirown.Ontheotherhand,inEnglish,therearecompoundwordslikewaiting-room,baby-stroller,etc.Is“waiting-room”onewordortwowords?

Second,sincethereisthephenomenonofliaison（连读）,thephonologicallyseparationsarenotnecessarilythesameasorthographicseparations.Forexample,you’llagreethat“atall”consistsoftwowords,butinspeakingit’sverylikelytobeproducedas[tl],withoutanypausebetween[t]and[l].

Third,inEnglishorthographic,thereisthereisthephenomenonofcontractedform.Ifyousay“itis”consistsoftwowords,howabout“it’s”?

2）Ageneralterm–thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms

Let’slookatthefollowingwords:

boy,boys

check,checks,checked,checking

fat,fatter,fattest

IfIaskyouhowmanywordsthereareineachline,you’lltellmeit’stwo,fourandthreerespectively.Soaltogetherthereare9words.Butifyourefertoadictionary,boyandboysbelongtothesamecountry.Andthefourwordsinthesecondlinealsobelongtothesameentry.Thereforewordcanbeusedeitherasageneralterm,referringtobothboyandboysorasaspecificterm,inwhichsenseboyandboysaretwodifferentwords.Todistinguishbetweenthegeneralsenseandthespecificsense,weintroduceaterm–lexeme（词素）torefertowordinthegeneralsense,thatis,theabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage.Thus,“boy”isthelexemeunderlyingthetwowords“boy”and“boys”,and“check”isthelexemeunderlyingthewords“check,checks,checkedandchecking.”

3）Agrammaticalunit

Thegrammarofalanguagecontainsasetoflayers,andwordisoneofthem,asdisplayedinthefollowingfigure.

    EachoftheseiscalledaRANK;andalltheranksconstituteahierarchicalscale.NoticethattheWordrankislocatedbetweenMorphemeandWordGroup.Aword,inthissense,isthenagrammaticalunit,justlikemorphemeorclausecomplex.

5.1.2Identificationofwords

Wehavediscussedthedifficultyofdefiningwhat“word”is,butthisdoesn’tmeanitisaswelldifficultforustoidentifyaword.Everyoneofuscansayimmediatelywhetherawrittensymbolorasoundisawordornot,orit’soneormorewords.Herewecandependonsomeinternalcriteria,thatis,theinternalstructuresofwordsforitsidentification.Thiswillworkbetterthanthephysicalcriterion.

1）Stability稳定性

Stabilitymeansthattheinternalstructureofawordisstable.Itsconstituentscannotberearranged.Forexample,wordcannotberearrangedasdorw,chairpersoncannotbearrangedaspersonchair.Incontrast,it’spossibletorearrangetheconstituentsinsentencestoacertaindegree：

JimlaughedatJohn.

JohnlaughedatJim.

2）Uninterruptibility不可中断性

Bysayingtheconstituentsofawordcannotbeinterrupted,wemeanyoucannotinsertotherelementsintoaword,althoughtheremaybeseveralpartsofit.Forexample,disappointmentiscomposedofdis+appoint+ment,butwecannotinsertanyletterbetweenthedifferentparts.

However,thisfeatureofwordisonlyarelativenotion,andtherearewordsthatcanbeinterrupted.Forexample,passerby–passersby;son-in-law–sons-in-low.

3）Aminimumfreeform最小自由形式

ThisnotionwasfirstproposedbyLeonardBloomfield（1887-1949）.AccordingtoBloomfield,awordisthesmallestunitthatcanbeusedonitsowntomakeacompleteutterance.Hecallsit“theminimumfreeform”andheadvocatestreatingsentencesas“themaximumfreeform”.

--Whoisknockingatthedoor?

--Me.

SamuelGoldwyn:

Icoulddescribeyourproposalinjusttwowords:

impossible.

5.1.3Classificationofwords

Whatwe’vealreadydiscussedfocusonthegeneralfeaturesofdifferentwords,andwhatwe’regoingtotalknextdealswithdifferencesofvariouswords.

1）Variableandinvariablewords可变类与不变类

Beforewetalkaboutvariableandinvariablewords,wefirsthavetointroducetwoterms:

inflection（屈折变化）andinflectiveendings（屈折结尾）.Inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsbyaddingaffixes.Forexample,Englishisaninflectionallanguage.Wehavetheaffix–s/-estoindicatethethirdpersonsingular,-ingtoindicateaprogressiveaspect,etc.Thesuffixthatisaddedtoawordtoindicatesomegrammaticalfunctionisthencalledinflectiveending.

Thedistinctionbetweenvariableandinvariablewordsdependsonwhetherawordhasinflectiveforms.Thosehavinginflectiveformsarevariablewords,thosethathavenotareinvariable.Thereforevariablewordsinclude

nouns–number:

worker,workers;case,cases

verbs–tense,number:

work/works/worked/working

adjectives–degree:

fat,fatter,fattest

adverbs–degree:

much,more,most;well,better,best

pronoun–case:

you,your,yours

Invariablewordsincludemostlyconjunctionsandprepositionslikethrough,by,up,etc.

2）grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords语法词与词汇词

Accordingtothecontentofwords,wordscanbeclassifiedintoGRAMMATICALWORDSandLEXICALWORDS.Thoseexpressinggrammaticalmeaningsmainlyworkforconstructinggroup,phrase,clause,clausecomplex,oreventext.Theyaretermedgrammaticalwords,suchas,conjunctions,prepositions,articles,andpronouns.Andthosewhichhavemainlyworkforreferringtosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,arelexicalwords.Lexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguagewhilegrammaticalonesservetolinktogetherdifferentcontentparts,solexicalwordsarealsoknownasCONTENTWORDS（实义词）andgrammaticalonesasFUNCTIONWORDS（功能词）.

3）Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords封闭类和开放类

Accordingtowhetherthemembershipislimited,wordscanbeclassifiedasclosed-classwordsandopen-classwords.Wordslikepronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articlesbelongtothecategoryofclose-class,asitisverydifficulttoaddanewnumbertothem.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.Whentherearenewideas,inventions,ordiscoveries,newmembersarecontinuallyandconstantlyaddedtothelexicon.Soinprinciple,thenumberofwordsintheopen-classisinfiniteorunlimited.

However,thedistinctionbetweenclosed-classwordsandopen-classwordsisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Preposition,thoughaclosed-class,isarelativelyopenoneinEnglish.Expressionssuchasregarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bymeansof,andmanyothers,arenowrecognizedasprepositionsorcomplexprepositions.Inrespecttoopen-classitems,auxiliaryverbs,whichusedtobetreatedasopen-classwords,arerelativelyclosedinnumber.

4）Wordclasses词类

Wordclassesweretraditionallyknownas“partofspeech”.ThisisamisleadingtranslationfromGreek.Ithastwomajordefects:

1）Thereisambiguitywhenmeaningandfunctionareconcerned.Forexample,redandstonearebothnounsinmeaning,astheyrefertocolorandmaterialrespectively,buttheyusuallyfunctionasanadjective,appearinginthepositionofamodifier,e.g.aredhouse,astonehouse.2）About8or9partsofspeechareestablishedintraditionalgrammar,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctions,interjections,articles,etc.Buttheremaybeactuallymorepartofspeechthan8or9inalanguage.

Thetermwordclassdefinescategoriesofwordinamorepreciseway,anditalsocoversawiderrangeofwords.Somenewlyintroducedwordclassesinclude:

a.Particles小品词

Thisclassincludestheinfinitivemarkertoasingoingtodosth.

thenegativeparticle“not”asinIdonotspeakItalian.

andverbalparticleslikegeton,doup,breakdown,passby

b.Auxiliaries助词

Auxiliariesusedtobecalledmodalverbs,asasub-categoryofverb.Butthetrendtodayistoregardthesewordsasaseparatetype,astheybehavedifferentlyfrom