Chapter Two Greece.docx

Chapter Two Greece.docx

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ChapterTwoGreece

ChapterTwoGreece

PartOneEarlyGreece,2500-500B.C.E.

I.GreeceintheBronzeAge

UnliketherichfloodplainsofMesopotamiaandEgypt,Greeceisastarkworldofmountainsandsea.TheruggedterrainofGreece,only10%ofwhichisflat,andthescoresoflandsthatdottheAegeanandIonianseasfavorthedevelopmentofsmall,self-contianedagriculturalsocieties.TheGreekclimateisuncertain,constantlythreateningGreekfarmerswithfailure.Rainfallvariesenormouslyfromyeartoyear,andaridsummersalternatewithcool,wetwinters.Wheat,barley,andbeanswerethestaplesofGreeklife.Greekfarmersstruggledtoproducethemediterraneantriadofgrains,olives,andwine,whichfirstbegantodominateagriculturearound3000B.C.E.Constantfluctuationsinclimateandweatherfromregiontoregionhelpedtobreakdownthegeographicalisolationbyforcinginsularcommunitiestobuildcontactswithawiderworldinordertosurvive.

1.IslandsofPeace

Sincethelate19thcentury,archaeologistshavediscernedthreefairlydictinctlateBronzeAgecultures---theCycladic（基克拉迪文化）,theMinoan（米诺斯文化）,andtheMycenean（迈锡尼文化）---thatflourishedintheMediterraneanbeforetheendofthe12thcenturyB.C.E.

TheCyclades

ThefirstcultureappearedontheCyclads,theruggedislandsstrewnacrossthebottomoftheAegeanfromtheGreekmainliandtothecoastofAsiaMinor.Cycladicsocietywasnotconcentratedintotowns,nor,wasitparticularlywarlike.Cycladicreligionfocusedonfemaledeities,perhapsfertilitygoddesses.Asearlyas2500B.C.E.,Cycldicartisansdevelopedahighlevelofmetallurgical（冶金的andartisitcskill.

MinoanCrete

Crete’slocationbetweenthecivilizationsofthefertileCrescent,Egypt,andthebarbarianworldsofthenorthandwestmadetheislandanaturalpointofexchangeandamalgamationofcultures.DuringthegoldenageofCrete,roughlybetween2000and1550B.C.E.,theislanddevelopeditsuniquetraditions.

Likeotherancientcivilizations,MinoanCretewasstronglystratified.Thevastpeasantrypaidaheavytributeinoliveoilandotherproduce.Thepalaceelitesredistributedthiswealththroughtheirpatternsofconsumption.

Althoughmaledeitiesreceivedveneration,Cretansparticularlyworshipedfemaledeities,especiallythemothergoddess.Minoansocietywasnotclearlymatriarchal,butuntilthe14thcenturyB.C.E.,bothmenandwomenseemtohaveplayedimportantrolesinreligiousandpubliclife.

Mycenaean

Around1600B.C.E.,anewandpowerfulwarriorcivilizationaroseonthePeloponnesusatMycenae.Thiscivilization,whichencompassednotonlytheGreekmainlandbutalsopartsofthecoastofAsiaMinor,iscalledMycenaean,althoughthereisnoevidencethatthecityofMycenaeactuallyruledallGreece.

TheMycenaeansquicklyadoptedartisanalandarchitecturaltechniquesfromneighboringcultures,especiallyfromtheHittitesandfromCrete,andincorporatedthesetechniquesintoadistinctivetraditionoftheirown.

2.TheDarkAge

Mycenaeandominationdidnotlastforlong.Around1200B.C.E.,manyofthemainlandandislandfortressesandcitiesweresackedandtotallydestroyed.Whyandhowthishappenedareamongthegreatmysteriesofworldhistory.Inlatercenturies,theGreeksbelievedthataftertheTrojianWar,newpeoples,especiallytheDorians,hadmigratedintoGreece,destroyingMycenaeandmostoftheotherAchaean（亚加亚人的；希腊的）cities.Morerecently,somehistorianshavearguedthatcatastrophicclimatechanges,volcaniceruptions,orsomeothernaturaldisasterwreckedthecitiesandbroughtfamineandtremendoussocialunrestinitswake.

Neithertheoryisaccurate.MycenaeanGreeceself-destructed.ItsdisintegrationwaspartofthewidespreadcrisisaffectingtheeasternMediterraneaninthe12thcenturyB.C.E.Overpopulation,thefragilityoftheagrarianbase,therisksofoverspecializationincashcropssuchasgraininMesseniaandsheepraisinginCrete,andrivalryamongstates---allmadeMycenaeanculturevulnerable.ThedisintegrationoftheHittiteempireandthenear-collapseoftheEgyptianempiredisruptedMediterraneancommerce,exacerbatinghostilitiesamongGreekstates.

Fromroughly1200to800B.C.E.,theAegeanworldenteredwhatisgenerallytermedtheDarkAge,aconfusedperiodaboutwhichlittleisknown,duringwhichGreecereturnedtoamoreprimitivelevelofcultureandsociety.

InthewakeoftheMycenaeancallopse,bandsofnorthernersmovedslowlyintothePeloponnesuswhileotherGreeksmigratedoutfromthemainlandtotheislandsandthecoastofAsiaMinor,bringingdistinctivedialecticandculturalcharateristics.Asaresult,fromthe11thcentureB.C.E.,bothshoresoftheAegeanbecamepartofaGreek-speakingworld.Stilllater,GreeksestablishedcoloniesinwhatistodaysouthernUkraine,Italy,NorthAfrica,Spain,andFrance.Throughoutitshistory,Greecewaslessageographicalthanaculturaldesignation.

TheGreeceofthisDarkAgewasmuchpoorer,morerural,andmoresimplyorganized.Architectureandurbantraditionsdeclined,andwritingdisappearedalongwiththeelitesforwhoseexclusivebenfittheseachievementshadserved.

Gradually,beginninginthe11thcenturyB.C.E.,thingsbegantochangeabit.Forinstance,Greeksinsomelocationsstoppedburyingtheirdeadandbegantopracticecremation.

Thetwoepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey,traditionallyascribedtoHomer,wereactuallytheworkoforalbards（吟游诗人）orperformerswhocomposedastheychanted.Muchofthedescriptionoflife,society,andcultureinHomericpoemsactuallyreflectsDarkAgeconditions.

FromtheBronzeAgecivilization,speakersofGreekhadinheriteddistantmemoriesofanoriginal,highlyorganizedurbancivilizationgraftedontotherural,aristocraticwarriorsocietyoftheDarkAge.Mostimportant,thiscommondimlyrecollectedpastgaveallGreek-speakinginhabitantsoftheMediterraneanworldcommonmyths,values,andidentity.

II.ArchaicGreece,700-500B.C.E.

Betweenroughly800and500B.C.E.,extraordinarychangestookplaceintheGreekworld.ThedescendantsofthefarmersandherdsmenofHomer’sDarkAgebroughtaboutarevolutioninpoliticalorganization,artistictraditions,intellectualvalues,andsocialstructures.Inaburstofcreativityforgedinconflictandcompetition,theyinventedpolitics,abstractthought,andtheindividual.GreeksoftheArchaicAgesettheagendafortherestofWesternhistory.

1.Changes

ThefirstsignofradicalchangeinGreecewasthemajorincreaseinpopulationinthe8thcenturyB.C.E.Itsconsequenceswereenormous.

First,populationincreasemeantmorevillagesandtowns,greatercommunicationamongthem,andthusthemorerapidcirculationofideasandskills.

Second,therisingpopulationplacedimpossibledemandsontheaagriculturalsystemofmuchofGreece.

Third,itledtogreaterdivisionoflaborand,withanincreasinglydiversepopulation,tofundamentalchangesinpoliticalsystem.

ThesecondchangewasthatthemultiplicityofpoliticalandsocialformsdevelopingintheArchaicAgesettheframeworkwithinwhichthefirstfloweringofGreekculturedeveloped.

Thethirdchangewasthateconomicandpoliticaltransformationlaidbasisforintellectualadvancebycreatingabroadclasswiththeprosperitytoenjoysufficientleisureforthoughtandcreativeactivity.

Finally,maritimerelationsbroughtpeopleandideasfromaroundtheGreekworldtogether,cross-fertilizing（相互影响）artistsandintellectualsinawayneverbeforeseenintheWest.

2.EthnosandPolis

Ingeneral,twoformsofpoliticalorganizationdevelopedinresponsetothepopulationexplosionofthe8thcenturyB.C.E.

OnthemainlandandinmuchofthewesternPeloponnesus,peoplecontinuedtoliveinlargeterritorialunitscalledethne（sing.Ethnos）.Ineachethnos,peoplelivedinvillagesandsmalltownsscatteredacrossawideregion.Theethnoswasgovernedbyanelite,oroligarchy,madeupofmajorlandownerswhometfromtimetotimeinoneoranothertownwithintheregion.Thisformofgovernment,whichhaditsrootsintheDarkAge,continuedtoexistthroughouttheclassicalperiod.

Amuchmoreinnvativeformofpoliticalorganization,whichdevelopedontheshoresoftheAegeanandontheislands,wasthepolis（pl.poleis）,orcity-state.Initially,polismeant“citadel”.Villagesclusteredaroundthesefortifications,whichwerebothprotectivestructuresandcultcentersforspecificdeities.Inadditiontoprotection,thepolisofferedamarketplace,wherefarmersandartisanscouldtradeandconductbusiness.Therapidpopulationgrowthofthe8thcenturyB.C.E.ledtothefusionofthesevillagesandtheformationofrealtowns.Eachtownwasindependent,andwasruledbyamonarchyoranoligarchy.Eachtowncontrolledthesurroundingregion.Attimesofpoliticalormilitarycrisis,therulersmightsummonanassemblyofthefreemalesofthecommunitytotheagoratoparticipateinortowitnessthedecision-makingprocess.Inthefollowingcenturiesthesecity-statesbecamethecenterforthatmostdramaticGreekexperimentingovernment:

democracy.

3.WritingandWarfare

Sometimeinthe8thcenturyB.C.E.,GreeksadoptedthePhoenician（腓尼基人）writingsysytem.Fromthestart,thiswritingsystemwasintendedforprivate,personaluseandwasavailabletovirtuallyanyone.

Thedemocratizationofwarledtothedemocratizationofpoliticallife.Thosewhobroughtvictoryinthephalanx（pl.phalanxesorphalanges）wereunwillingtoaccepttotaldominationbythearistocracyintheagora.Therapidgrowthoftheurbanpopulation,theincreasingimpoverishmentoftheruralpeasantry,andtheriseofanewclassofwealthymerchantcommonerswereallchallengesthat