传播学 复习要点.docx

传播学 复习要点.docx

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传播学复习要点

Chapter1

1.“Welookatthepresentthrougharear-viewmirror.Wemarchbackwardsintothefuture.”ItissaidbyMarshallMcLuhan.

2.RobertCathcartandGaryGumpert,twomediaresearchers,havecalledthephenomenonofseeingthepresentintermsofthepasta“mediagenerationgap.”

3.DefinitionofCommunication

Communicationisthetransmissionofinformationwiththeintentionofinfluencinganaudience.Itisasymbolic,purposive,two-wayprocesswhichishighlycontextualized.

4.CharacteristicsofCommunication

CommunicationIsaProcess

CommunicationIsSymbolic

CommunicationIsContextual

CommunicationIsPurposive\

CommunicationIsTwoWay

5.ModelsofCommunication

（1）Aristotle’sModel

oneofourearliestmodelsinhisRhetoric.InRhetoric,Aristotleprovideduswithabasicideaofwhatvariableswouldhavetobeconsideredinacommunicationevent:

speaker,message,audience,andform（fig.1.1）.

（2）Berlo’sModel

InTheProcessofCommunication,DavidBerloprovidedoneofthesimplestandmostusefulcontemporarymodelsofcommunication.Berlo’ssource-message-channel-receivermodel,commonlyreferredtoastheSMCRmodel,hassixbasicconstituents:

1.Thesource

2.Theencoder

3.Themessage

4.Thechannel

5.Thedecoder

6.Thereceiver

Inorderforustocommunicatewitheachother,wehavetotranslateourthoughtsintosymbols（encodethem）inordertotransmitmessages.Inourcontemporaryworld,wehavetorelyontechnologytoencodeanddecodeourmessages.

Berlo’smodelislinear,andthereforelimited.

（3）ShannonandWeaver’sModel

Signal

Message

Message

ReceivedSignal

ShannonandWeaver’scommunicationmodel（fig.1.2）introducestheconceptsofnoise,entropy,redundancy,bit,feedback,andchannelcapacity.Noiseisanythinginthechannel（ormedium）thatinterfereswiththemessage.

AseriouslimitationoftheShannonandWeavermodelisthatitdoesnottakemeaningintoaccount.

（4）Lasswell’sModel

In1948,politicalscientistHaroldLasswellcameupwithwhathassincebeencalledtheLasswellformulaasamodelforexplainingcommunication.Heconcludedthatausefulwaytodescribecommunicationwastoaskthefollowingaboutit:

Who

SaysWhat

InWhichChannel

ToWhom

WithWhatEffect?

9

Lasswell’sverbalmodelishelpfulbecauseitintroducestheconceptofeffect.Themodeltakesintoaccountthefactthatmessagesarenotjustdecodedbyreceivers,butalsohaveanimpactonthem.

（5）Gerbner’sModel

Itdealswiththenatureofthehumancommunicatorandtheroleperceptionplaysincommunication.Gerbner’smodelclearlydistinguishesbetweenanactualevent,thewayitisperceivedbythesender,howthatperceptionismadeintoamessage,andthewaythemessageisperceivedbythereceiver.Thismodelisusefulindescribingbothcommunicationandperceptualproblems.Appliedtothemassmedia,itcanalsobeusedtoexplorehowaccuratelyeventsintherealworldarereportedbythenewsasmeasuredbyaudienceperceptions.

（6）DeFleur’sModel

1966,MelvinDeFleurcreatedacommunicationmodelthatwasadevelopmentoftheShannonandWeavermodel.InDeFleur’smodel，thetwo-wayprocessnatureofcommunicationishighlighted.Hisinclusionoffeedbackandhisdepictionofcommunicationascircularsuggestthattheprocessofobtainingmeaningfrommessagesiscomplex.Frequentlysenderandreceiverhavetoexchangerolesastheyworktoovercomenoiseandnegotiateacommonmeaning.

Generally,thetermfeedbackreferstoanyresponseareceivermightsendtoasourceinresponsetoanoriginalmessage.

（7）WestleyandMacLean’sModel

TheWestleyandMacLeanmodel,datingfrom1957,hasbeeninfluentialbecauseitdealswiththecomplexsituationofmasscommunicationratherthanthetwo-personmodelsfeaturingasinglesenderandreceiver.Thismodel（fig.1.5）hasitsorigininsocialpsychologyandintheworkofT.M.Newcombwhosoughttorepresentthedynamicsofcommunicationsituationsbyexamininghowpeopledevelopedandmaintainedtheirrelationshipswitheachother.

BuildingonNewcomb’swork,BruceWestleyandMalcolmMacLeandevisedamorecomplicatedmodeltoaccountforcommunicationinthemassmedia.Inthismodel,AandBarestillcommunicatingaboutsomeobjectortopicX.Becausethisisamasscommunicationsituation,however,AisactingasanadvocatebyselectingfrommanypossibleXstheonethatistobecommunicatedtopersonB.A’sintentinselectingamongthesetopicsistopurposivelymodifyB’sperceptionofX.Acouldbeapoliticianoranadvertiser,forexample,andXcouldbeanytopicfromoursocialenvironment.CisanagentofbothAandB.C’sroleistoselectcertainA’sandprovidethemwithaccesstothechannelreachingBortheaudience.C’sintentistomeetB’sneedforadequateinformation.

ChapterII

1.Communicationplaysavarietyofrolesinourlivesandinoursocietyasawhole.Functionalapproachestocommunicationattempttodefineanddescribeexactlywhatthoserolesmightbe.

Functionaltheoriesassumethatsocieties,groups,andindividualsexistassystemsandthatthesesystemstrytomaintainthemselvesinastateofequilibriumorhomeostasis.

Decidingwhatpurposeacommunicationeventservesisnotalwayseasybecausesometimescommunicationeventsservemultiplefunctions.Althoughwegenerallycreatemessageswithaconsciousintentioninmind,sometimesmessagesserveotherfunctionsaswell.

Notallthefunctionsofacommunicatedeventmaybeintended（ormanifest）:

somemaybeunintended（orlatent）.（newscoverageofstuntdriverEvelKnievel’sjump）

Functionalanalysishelpsusseehowcommunicationeventsaffectthenormaloperationofagivensystem.Eventswhichhelpmaintainsystemsareconsideredfunctional;thosewhichcausestrainareconsidereddysfunctional.

CategoriesofCommunicationFunction

Thecategoriesmostoftenusedtodescribethedifferentfunctionscommunicationservesareinformation,instruction,persuasion,andentertainment.

Persuasion

Persuasionreferstothatclassofmessagesdesignedtoalterourbeliefsorbehavior.Thekeytorecognizingcommunication’spersuasivefunctionistolookforappealstopersonalvaluesandmotives.TheGreekrhetoricianAristotle（384-322B.C.）wroteaboutthreemajortypesofappeal.HecalledthemIogos（理性ration）,ortheappealtologic;ethos（气质）,ortheappealtocharacter;andpathos（情感）,ortheappealtoemotions.

Whenpersuasionisdesignedtoinfluencehumanactionsbymanipulatingspoken,written,orpictorialrepresentations,thenitisconsideredpropaganda.

HaroldLasswell,apioneeringtheoristintherealmofpropaganda,arguedthatadvertisingalsofallsintothecategoryofpropaganda.

Peoplewithwhomthelistenerandviewercanreadilyidentifyorlookuptoareidealforcreatingeffectivepropaganda.Asimilarapproachisusedincreatingcommercials.That’swhycelebrityendorsements（明人代言）andtestimonialsaresooftenverysuccessful.

Entertainment

Communicationeventswhosefunctionistogiveuspleasurearecalledentertainment.Mostofthepeoplewhoprovideentertainmenteventsforusareprofessionalsworkinginanentertainmentindustry—radio,television,film,orpublishing.

ProblemswithInformation

Weexpectinformationtobecompleteandaccurate,butthemerefactthatinformationispreparedbyhumanbeingsmeansthatcompletenessandaccuracycannotbeassumed.Peoplewhoprovideinformationserveasgatekeepers.Theyhavetomakesomedecisionsaboutwhatinformationshouldbemadeavailableandwhatcanbeeliminated.

Asecondproblemisthatsometimeswhatappearstobeinformationisreallyopinionorpropagandapretendingtobefact.

Anotherproblemwithinformationliesinthewaywebringfactstobearinourindividuallives.Whenwereceiveinformation,wetrytointegrateitintoourexistingknowledgeinordertomakeuseofit.

Howweseetheworldisshapedbyourculturalandpersonalexperiencesandtheseaffecthowwereacttofactualdata.

ProblemswithInstruction

Manyminorityandwomen’sgroupspointtoimplicitbiasesininstructionwhentheycritiquethecourseofferingsincollegesanduniversities.

Twootherproblemsrelatedtotheinstructionalfunctionofcommunicationarethefactthatnotallpeoplelearnthesamewayandthatnotallpeoplehavethesamemotivationforlearning.

ProblemswithPersuasion

Theintentofpersuasionistogetustochangeeitherourbehaviororourattitudesaboutsomething.Inordertogetustoact,persuasionoftenworksonourdeepest-heldpersonalbeliefs.

Inordertoavoidhavingouremotionsmanipulated,receiversofpersuasivemessagesoftenhavetomakeaspecialefforttoremainawareofsuchtechniquesbeingappliedtous.

Mediasourceseffectivelyactasagendasetters（议程设置者）.

Thenews,byselectingwhatstorieswehearabout,tellsusessentiallywhatitisthatisimportantforustoknow.Thereiscurrentlyabitofcontroversyamongcommunicationresearchersaboutwhetherornotthemediacanmakeusthinkwhattheywish,butthereisgeneralagreementthattheycanatleastgetustothinkaboutwhattheywish.

ProblemswithEntertainment

Entertainmentandleisurearebigbusiness,andthesebusinessesaredrivenbyprofitmotives.Somecriticsofthemedia—especiallytelevision—pointtotheircommercialnatureasamajorcauseofthepoorqualityoftheirproducts.

Thediscussionoftelevisionasthe“greatwasteland”;objectionsofmanypeopletothesex,violence,anddrugsassociatedwithrockculture

thesearchforqualityissecondtothesearchforprofit.Criticsofthemediaasbigbusinesswouldconsidermuchoftheentertainmenttheyproducedysfunctional.

Itencouragespassivity.“narcotizing