语言学知识点总结.docx

语言学知识点总结.docx

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语言学知识点总结

Introduction:

Brainandlanguage

Cortex:

thesurfaceofthebrain,oftencalledgraymatter,consistingofbillionsofneurons.Itisthedecision-makingorganofthebody.

Cerebralhemispheres:

thebrainiscomposedofcerebralhemisphere,oneontherightandoneontheleft,joinedbythecorpuscallosum.

Corpuscallosum:

anetworkofmorethan200millionfiberswhichpermitstheleftandrighthemispheretocommunicate.

1.Aphasia:

istheneurologicaltermforanylanguagedisorderthatresultsfrombraindamagecausedbydiseaseortrauma（失语症）

Broca’saphasia:

laboredspeech,producingagrammaticsentences,absenceoffunctionalwords,inflectionomission,havingdifficultyinunderstandinginformationfromsyntacticstructures

Wernicke’saphasia:

producefluentspeechwithgoodintonationandmaylargelyadheretotherulesofsyntax,howeverbeingsemanticallyincoherent,havingdifficultyinnamingobjects.

2.Dyslexics:

ischaracterizedbydifficultywithlearningtoreadfluentlyandwithaccuratecomprehensiondespitenormalintelligence,Wordsubstitution,Functionwordomission,boththebrainandlanguagearestructuredinacomplex,modularfashion.

论证：

Thelanguagefacultyisanautonomous,geneticallydeterminedmoduleofthebrain.Aphasiawithdifferentkindsoflinguisticimpairmentsupportsthehypothesisthatthementalgrammar,likethebrainitself,isnotanundifferentiatedsystem,butratherconsistsofdistinctcomponentsormoduleswithdifferentfunctions.

3.Splitbrainshowsthatthetwohemispheresappeartobeindependent,andmessagessenttothebrainresultindifferentresponses,dependingonwhichsidereceivesthemessage.

•Informationoflanguagecannotbetransferredtorighthemisphere

•Differenthemispherehasdifferentjobs

•Havedifferentvisualfields

4.SLI:

specificlanguageimpairment

•Onlylinguisticabilityisaffected,andoftenonlyspecificaspectsofgrammarareimpaired

•thedifferentcomponentsoflanguage（phonology,syntax,lexicon）canbeselectivelyimpairedorspared

5.Savantonlanguage:

linguisticabilityderivesfromgeneralintelligencebecausethesetwoindividuals（andotherslikethem）developedlanguagedespiteotherpervasiveintellectualdeficits.

6.Thecritical-agehypothesisassumesthatlanguageisbiologicallybasedandthattheabilitytolearnanativelanguagedevelopswithinafixedperiod,frombirthtomiddlechildhood.Duringthiscriticalperiod,languageacquisitionproceedseasily,swiftly,andwithoutexternalintervention.Afterthisperiod,theacquisitionofgrammarisdifficultand,formostindividuals,neverfullyachieved.

Morphology:

thewordsoflanguage

1.Morpheme：

isthelinguistictermforthemostelementalunitofgrammaticalform.

2.linguisticsign:

Amorpheme—theminimallinguisticunit—isthusanarbitraryunionofasoundandameaning（orgrammaticalfunction）thatcannotbefurtheranalyzed.

3.Root:

Morphologicallycomplexwordsconsistofamorphemerootandoneormoreaffixes.Arootmayormaynotstandaloneasaword.Therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentsofitsmeaning.

4.Stem:

Whenarootmorphemeiscombinedwithanaffix,itformsastem.

5.Base:

Linguistssometimesusethewordbasetomeananyrootorstemtowhichanaffixisattached.Basecanbearootorstem.

Ⅰ.ClassificationofMorphemes：

Freevs.boundmorphemes.

Freemorphemes:

mayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Freemorphemecanstandaloneasaword.

boundmorphemesareothermorphemeslike–ness,-ly,pre-areneverwordsbythemselvesbutarealwayspartsofwords.Boundmorphememustbeattachedtoabasemorpheme.boundmorpheme:

affix,boundroot.

Affix:

Prefix,Suffix,Infix,Circumfix,Derivationalaffixes.

Infixes：

morphemesthatareinsertedintoothermorphemes.-um-inBontonc,kilad,kumiladas"tobered"

Circumfixes:

morphemesthatareattachedtoabasemorphemebothinitiallyandfinally..InChickasaw,thenegativeisformedwithbothaprefixik-andthesuffix-o.ik+oinChickasaw,palliis"itishot",opposite.

Ⅱ.RulesofWordFormation；Derivation，Inflection，compound

1.Derivation:

Whencertainboundmorphemesareaddedtoabase,anewwordwithanewmeaningisderived.Theformthatresultsfromtheadditionofaderivationalmorphemeiscalledaderivedword.Thederivedwordmayalsobeofadifferentgrammaticalclassthantheoriginalword.Sometimesitchangesitspronunciation.e.g.-ish,-er,-ly,-ship,re-,un-.

2.Inflection:

boundmorphemeswhichhaveastrictlygrammaticalfunction,markpropertiessuchastense,number,person.inflectionsneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofthestems.E.g.-s,-ed,-ing,-en,-s,-'s,-er,-est.base+affixe.g.wait-waits

Internalchange:

ablaut（元音交替）andumlaut（元音变音）inEnglish.

e.g.Sing~sang~sung;foot~feet

Suppetion

Reduplication（红红火火）

Toneplacement

3.compoundwords:

Twoormorewordsmaybejoinedtoformnew,suchassteamboat,airplane,redhead,blackboard,redneck,turncoat,highbrow.

Head:

themorphemethatdeterminesthecategoryofentireword.InEnglish,therightmostwordinacompoundistheheadofthecompound.

4.Backformation:

aprocessthatcreatesanewwordbyremovingarealorsupposedaffixfromanotherword.resurrection→resurrectdonation→donatepeddler→peddleeditor→edit

5.Cliticization:

onewordisattachedtotheotherforphonologicalreasons.E.g.Jeant’aime.（French）Jeanlikesyou.th’angel（oldEnglish）theangel

6.Conversion/ZeroDerivationimplant,import,record,present,contest

•Clipping:

apolysyllabicwordisshortenedbydeletingoneormoresyllables,lab,doc,flu,zoo.

•Blends:

wordsarecreatedfromnon-morphemicpartsoftwowords.smog:

smokefog,bit:

binarydigit

7.Acronyms:

takinginitiallettersofwordsorphasesasaword,WTO,NASA.

8.Onomatopoeia:

wordswhosepronunciationsuggeststhemeaninge.g:

meow,bang.

9.Coinage:

boycott,watt,google

Ⅲ.Morphologicalanalysis

toasknativespeakershowtheysayvariouswords-tocollectdata;tolookforrecurringforms;Toclassifythemorphemes;Toexposetherelationamongmorphemes;Toformulatemorphologicalrules

Syntax–thesentencepatternsofLanguage

1.syntax：

Thepartofgrammarthatrepresentsaspeaker’sknowledgeofsentencesandtheirstructuresiscalledsyntax.

2.Syntacticcategories：

Afamilyofexpressionsthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality,includingbothphrasalcategoriesandlexicalcategories.

3.Phrasalcategories:

NP,VP,AdjP,PP（prepositionalphrase）,andAdvP（adverbial）.

4.Lexicalcategories:

N,V,A,Adv

5.Functionalcategories:

determiner,demonstratives,auxiliary,modals,etc.

6.phrasestructuretree:

Atreediagramwithsyntacticcategoryinformation（constituentstructuretree）.PStreesrepresentthreeaspectsofaspeaker’ssyntacticknowledge:

Thelinearorderofthewordsinthesentence;Theidentificationofthesyntacticcategoriesofwordsandgroupsofwords;Thehierarchicalstructureofthesyntacticcategories.

7.d-structures:

thebasicstructuresofthesentencesiscalleddeepstructures.

8.structuraldependency：

Thetransformationrulesarestructuraldependency,whichactsonphrasestructureswithoutpayingattentiontotheparticularwordsthatthestructurescontain.

e.g.1）PPpreposingrule.Theboyranupbill.

2）theomissionofthatinsubjectposition.Thatyouknowbothersme.

3）MoveAuxrule:

MovetheauxdominatedbytherootS.Theboywhoissleepingwasdreaming,Wastheboywhoissleepingdreaming.Istheboywhosleepingwasdreaming?

（╳）

Ⅰ.TransformationalRules

Somesentencesmayhaveastructuraldifferencethatcorrespondsinasystematicwaytoameaningdifference.

1.MoveAuxrule

Theboyissleeping.Istheboysleeping?

→左d右s

Itincludesothertransformationalsentencessuchasactive-passive,theresentencesandPPpreposing.

2.Wh-movement——movesthewhphrasetoC

ThedependencybetweenthewhphraseandthemissingconstituentcanbeexplainedifitisassumedthatineachcasethewhphraseoriginatedinthepositionofthegapinD-structure.

9.PrincipleandParameter

UGiscomposedofprincipleandparameter.Theprinciplesspecifiesthatsyntacticrulesarestructuredependentandthatthelandingsiteofmovementrules.Theparametersspecifiedthevariation,suchastheorderofheadsandcomplementsandthevariationsonmovementrules.AchildacquiringalanguagemustfixtheparametersofUGforthatlanguage.

Semantics:

themeaningoflanguage

1.semantics：

Thestudyofthelinguisticmeaningofmorphemes,words,phrases,andsentences

2.Truthconditionalsemantics:

Itisasystematicwaytoaccountfortheabilitytodeterminewhetherasentenceistrueorfalse,whenonesentenceimpliesthetruthorfalsehoodofanother,orwhetherasentencehasmultiplemeanings.

3.Entailment:

whenthetruthofonesentenceguaranteesthetruthofanothersentence,thereisarelationofentailment.e.g.Jackswimsbeautifully.entailsJackswims.

4.Tautology:

Arestrictednumberofsentencesareindeedtrueregardlessofthecircumstances.e.g.Apersonwhoissingleisnotmarried./Circlesareround.

5.Contradiction:

thesentencethatisalwaysfalse.Abachelorismarried./Circlesaresquare.

6.paradox:

Aparadoxisafigureofspeechconsistingofastatementorpropositionwhichonthefaceofitseemsself-contradictory,butwhichonfurtherthinking,mayprovetobetrue,well-founded,andeventocontainasuccinctpoint.e.g.Morehaste,lessspeed./Ifwewantpeace,bepreparedforwar.

7.Metaphor:

Theyaresentencesthatappeartobeanomalous（不恰当的）,buttowhichameaningfulconceptcanbeattached,suchasTimeismoney.

8.Idioms:

Theyarefixedexpressionswhosemea