civilisation6.docx

civilisation6.docx

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civilisation6

/TheBirthoftheModernEnvironmentalMovement1960-1980

/1.Theenvironmentalmovementandthecounter-cultureofthe1960s

/a.Thecounter-cultureandtheNewLeft

⏹1960s:

socialunrest,widespreadpoliticalprotest

⏹Heterogeneousmovement:

Marxists,hippies,feminists,civilrightsactivists,anti-Vietnamwaractivists,studentsseekingtoreformuniversities…

⏹ArejectionofmainstreamUSculture,dominantvaluesandstandardsofconduct

/TheCounterCultureAgainsttheTechno-IndustrialOrder

⏹2maintrendsincounterculturalthinking:

⏹Rejectionofso-calledtraditionalvalues

⏹RadicalquestioningofAmericanfaithintechnologicalprogress

→FearofbureaucratisationandrationalisationofAmericanlife

e.g.WilliamH.Whythe,TheOrganizationMan（1956）

/HerbertMarcuse（1898-1979）

⏹Goal:

reviseMarxisttheorytoanalysethenewindustrialandurbanorder

⏹One-DimensionalMan（1964）:

indictmentoftheroleperformedbytechnologyinmodernculture（amongotherthings）

/HerbertMarcuse,One-DimensionalMan（1964）

“Theanalysisisfocusedonadvancedindustrialsociety,inwhichthetechnicalapparatusofproductionanddistribution（withanincreasingsectorofautomation）functions,notasthesum-totalofmereinstrumentswhichcanbeisolatedfromtheirsocialandpoliticaleffects,butratherasasystemwhichdeterminesaprioritheproductoftheapparatusaswellastheoperationsofservicingandextendingit.Inthissociety,theproductiveapparatustendstobecometotalitariantotheextenttowhichitdeterminesnotonlythesociallyneededoccupations,skills,andattitudes,butalsoindividualneedsandaspirations.Itthusobliteratestheoppositionbetweentheprivateandpublicexistence,betweenindividualandsocialneeds.Technologyservestoinstitutenew,moreeffective,andmorepleasantformsofsocialcontrolandsocialcohesion.”

/PaulGoodman（1911-1972）

⏹Communitas（1947/1960）:

questionedtheAmericanwayoflifepartlyonecologicalgrounds

⏹GrowingUpAbsurd（1956）:

critiqueof“theorganizedsystem”:

arationalisedsocialenvironmentwhichofferedyoungpeoplenoopportunitytomatureintoresponsibleadultsandcitizens

/TheodoreRoszak,TheMakingofaCounterCulture（1970）

⏹Coinedtheexpression‘counterculture’

⏹Counterculture=awaytorejectbureaucracyandembracegenuinefreedom

/TheCounterCultureGoesGreen

“Thetroubleis,wedon’ttrusttothewayoftheworld.Wehavelearned−inpartfromtheacceleratingurbanizationoftherace,inpartfromtheobjectivemodeofconsciousnesssoinsistentlypromulgatedbyWesternscience,inpart,too,perhaps,fromthegeneralChristiandisparagementofnature−tothinkofnatureasapitofsnaresandsorrows.Natureisthatwhichmustbetakenunsentimentallyinhandandmadeliveablebyfeverisheffort,ideallybyreplacingmoreandmoreofitwithman-madesubstitutes.Sothen,perhapssomedayweshallinhabitatotallyplasticworld,clinicallyimmaculateandwhollypredictable.Toliveinsuchacompletelyprogrammedenvironmentbecomesmoreandmoreourconceptionofrationalorder,ofsecurity[Roszak,TheMakingofaCounterCulture,1970].”

/Gradualgreeningofthecounterculture

⏹ConstructionoftheBodegaBaynuclearplant（California）cancelledin1964

→intensificationofanti-nuclearactivisminthe1970s

⏹CritiqueofthewastefulnessoftheUSWayofLife（consumerismatahighenvironmentalcost）

e.g.TheHippies

/Subsequentinfluenceofthecounter-cultureontheUSenvironmentalmovement

⏹Newissuesontheenvironmentalagenda:

overpopulation,qualityoflifeissues,pollution,pesticideuse,urbansprawl…

⏹Influxofformercounterculturistsinenvironmentalorganisations:

⏹MadethetoneandattitudeofUSenvironmentalismmoreconfrontational,radical,andleft-wing

⏹Anenvironmentalistcandidatetothepresidentialelectionin1980（BarryCommoner→0.27%）

⏹Greenpeacein1971,inCanada:

fusingofpacifismandenvironmentalactivism

/2.Theprofessionalizationofmajorenvironmentalorganisations

/a.TheroadtoEarthDay:

theriseofenvironmentalconsciousnessinthe1960s

⏹1962:

SilentSpringbyRachelCarson→drewtheattentionofthepublictothedangersofpesticides.Hugesuccess

⏹Severalenvironmentalcatastrophesreceivedalotofmediaattention

/1969:

burningoftheCuyahogariver

/1969:

SantaBarbaraoilspill

/EarthDay,April22,1970

⏹OrganisedbySenatorGaylordNelson（D-Wisconsin）

⏹Hugesuccess（10millionparticipants）

⏹Mainconcern:

pollution.Anthropocentricagenda

⏹All-inclusiveevent

⏹LandmarkinAmericanenvironmentalhistory

/b.Congressionalactivity

⏹1970s:

environmentaldecade→18environmentallawspassedbyCongressbetween1970and1980

⏹2sortsoflaw:

⏹Pollutioncontrol

⏹Wildernesspreservation

/Wildernesspreservation

⏹WildernessAct（1964）→WildernessPreservationSystem

⏹EndangeredSpeciesAct（1973）

⏹1960sand1970s:

87unitsaddedtonationalparksystem

→1980:

AlaskaNationalInterestLandsConservationAct

/Pollutioncontrol

⏹CleanAirAct（1963,65,70,77,90）

⏹CleanWaterAct（1960,72,77）

⏹NEPA（NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct（1969）

⏹Awealthofotherexamples

/1970:

EPA（EnvironmentalProtectionAgency）

⏹Environmentalwatchdog

⏹Mandate:

implementandenforceenvironmentallegislationandenvironmentalstandards

⏹Morepressureonbusinessandindustrialinterestsbutalsoongovernment（federal,stateorlocal）

→Environmentalpolicysystemestablishedinthe1970s

/Consequencesofnewenvironmentalpolicysystem

⏹Fix-itconception:

economicgrowthremainedparamount.Regulatingtheexistingsystem≠replacingit

⏹Pollutioncontrolindustry:

engineeringcompanies,wastemanagementoperation,lawfirms…

e.g.Wastemanagementbusiness:

$1billioninrevenuein1970→$25billionin1990

/c.Majorenvironmentalorganisationsfrom1960to1980:

developmentandtactics

⏹Hugeincreaseinsize,membershipandimportance:

⏹SierraClub:

20.000membersin1959→113.000in1970→165.000in1980

⏹AudubonSociety:

41.000in1962→120.000in1970→400.000in1980

⏹AfterEarthDay:

200nationalandregionalenvironmentalgroups;3000localenvironmentalgroups

/Newenvironmentalorganisations

⏹1967:

EnvironmentalDefenceFund（EDF）

→“Suethebastards!

”

⏹1971:

SierraClubLegalDefenceFund

/Tactics

⏹Extensiveuseofcourtsandlitigation（20.000environmentallawyersby1989）

/Professionalization

⏹Ecology:

BigSciencealongsideBigGovernmentandBigBusiness

⏹Lawyers,scientists,lobbyists,fundraisers,publicists…

⏹“Envirocrats”throughtheuseoftherevolving-doorsystem

⏹Contributionsfromcorporations（BP,Monsanto…）

/Lobbying

⏹PartoftheAmericanlegislativeprocess

⏹Multiplevetopoints

⏹EasieraccesstocentresofpowerintheUSthaninEurope

⏹Sincethe1970s:

lobbying=alucrativeindustry

/Before1960s:

corporateinterestschallengedonlybylabourinterests

⏹CharlesE.Wilson（SecretaryofDefenceandformerCEOofGeneralMotors）in1953:

“WhatisgoodforGeneralMotorsisgoodforthecountry.”

/1970s:

environmentallobbyists

⏹Moreandmoreenvironmentalregulations

⏹Moreandmorepressurefromenvironmentalgroups

→Intensifiedtheneedforlobbying:

WashingtonDC=apoliticalbattlegroundbetweenenvironmentalistsandbigbusiness

⏹By1970s:

allmajorenvironmentalorganisationshaveheadquartersinWashington

⏹1970:

LeagueofConservationVoters

/3.Fightingagainstpollution:

grassrootsmovements

/a.SilentSpring（1962）

⏹RachelCarson（1907-1964）

⏹AkeytextinUSenvironmentalhistory

/Syntheticrevolutioninthemid-20thcentury

⏹Petrochemicalindustry:

asuccessstory

⏹Pesticides:

afixtureinagricultureandothercommercialuses

⏹AfterWW2,widespreaduseofpesticides,DDTandotherchemicals

/SilentSpring

⏹Pesticidescanbeharmfulforhumansandecosystems

⏹Ecologicalpieceofwork:

bacteriaandinsectsplayaroleinthebalanceofnature

⏹“Thissoilcommunity[…]consistsofawebofinterwovenlives,eachinsomewayrelatedtotheothers−thelivingcreaturesdependingonthesoil,butthesoilinturnisavitalelementoftheearthonlysolongasthiscommunitywithinitflourishes.”

/SilentSpring

“The‘controlofnature’isaphraseconceivedinarrogance,bornoftheNeanderthalageofbiologyandphilosophy,whenitwassupposedthatnatureexistsfortheconvenienceofman.TheconceptsandpracticesofappliedentomologyforthemostpartdatefromthatStoneAgeofscience.Itisouralarmingmisfortunethatsoprimitiveasciencehasarmeditselfwiththemostmodernandterribleweapons,andthatinturningthemagainsttheinsectsithasalsoturnedthemagainsttheearth.”

/

⏹Best-seller

⏹Hugeimpactonthegeneralpublic

⏹Introducedecologicalsciencetothegeneralpublic

⏹RachelCarsondiedin1964

⏹DDTbannedintheUnitedStatesin1972

/b.Grassrootsactivism:

values,goals,tactics

⏹Before1960s:

toxicwastestreatedlikeothersortsofwastes

⏹Pollutionnotreallyanissuebeforethe1960s

⏹1960s:

growingawarenessofthedangerposedbytoxicwastes:

⏹1962:

SilentSpring

⏹Environmentalcatastrophes

→100soflocalgrassrootsorganisations

e.g.GASP（GroupAgainstSmogandPollution）

/Localactiongroups

⏹Anthropocentricagenda:

pollutioncontrolratherthanwildernesspreservation

⏹NIMBYs（NotInMyBackyard）

⏹Forcebusinessesandauthoritiestorightenvironmentalwrongs:

toxicdumps,contaminatedwatersupplies,nuclearplants,garbageincinerators…

/RalphNader

⏹Mid-1960s:

wonahigh-profilelawsuitagainstGeneralMotors

⏹Anetworkofpublicinterestorganisationstocurbcorporatepower

⏹PIRGs（PublicInterestResearchGroups）:

campaigns