Legal English 6BFor the students only.docx
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LegalEnglish6BForthestudentsonly
LegalEnglish6BForthestudentsonly
I.CaseBriefs(Briefings):
为何美国法学院一年级新生,在第一学期“法学研究与写作”(LegalResearchandWriting)课程的前阶段就必须学习判决摘要的工作:
在传统法学的范畴里,如契约法(contracts)、侵权法(torts)、刑法(criminallaw)等,美国法在相当程度范围内仍承袭英国的普通法(CommonLaw)。
所谓的“普通法”正如我们前面所学,系指由一个个法院判决所形成的法规则累积而成的。
因此,在学习此等传统法学时,不可避免地须大量阅读以往法院所做成的判决。
为了能准确地掌握且精简地陈述判决的内容,“法学研究与写作”课程的老师一般在课程的一开始,便会教你如何去从事摘要判决的工作。
判决摘要的学习工作,通常有下述两大重点:
首先须让法学院的新生能看懂法院判决书的格式;这一点我们在5B中有所涉及,此处不赘述;此外,使学习者知悉一份完整的判决摘要通常应具备哪些项目,才能在日后再复习此案例时,可收事半功倍之效。
§1.CaseBriefsforResearch:
(如何作研究性案例摘要)
学会作案例摘要是一个法律人所要具备的最基本的素质。
对于中国的法学院学生而言,学会用英文作英文案例的摘要并形成习惯,实为提高法律英语的一个的最佳途径。
总结案例时,首先要明确为什么要这样做,是为了上课,还是为了研究或其他目的,然后依据这个特定目的来安排版式。
无论设计何种版式,都要保证它是为你服务的,亦即判决摘要的格式须符合个人的需要。
为研究所做的案例摘要是根据所要解决的问题来设计。
当你设计自己的案例摘要格式时,可以参考下面格式:
1、编号索引(Citation)
一定要准确完整地写下该案例的全部编号索引,以后引用该案例时就会节省许多时间。
2、当事方(parties)
包括本案的所有当事方和他们在诉讼中地位的变化。
例如,某公司在一审中是以被告身份出现的,但在二审上诉中却可能成为上诉人,而且自始至终否认他们是侵权人。
那么该公司的身份演变即为被告—上诉人—侵权人(Defendant—appellant—tortfeasor),而另一方就应该被确认为原告—被上诉人—受害人(plaintiff---respondent—victim)。
3、诉讼历史(PriorProceedings)
这里包括该案件以前所进行的诉讼程序和历史。
例如Trialcourtfoundagainstthedefendant(一审法院判决被告输)——Defendantappealed(被告上诉)——courtofappealsreversedthetrialcourt’sdecision(上诉法院改判了一审法院的判决)——andnowthisappealisbeforethesupremecourt(改判判决后另一方不服再上诉到最高法院)。
4、当事人的诉由(theoriesoftheparties)
这里包括原告或上诉人就本案所提出的法律理由,如falseimprisonment(非法拘押)orbreachofcontract(合同违约)。
同时也包括被告可能提出的抗辩理由,如consent(同意或出于自愿)orlackofconsideration(缺乏对价)。
5、寻求的法律救济(objectives)
如:
gettingspecificperformance(要求实际履行)orgettingdamagesintheamountof$55,000(要求得到55000元的损害赔偿)orgettingacquitted(要求被宣布无罪或释放;还请债务)。
6、事实(facts)
在这里写下对理解本案所必需的所有相关法律事实(legallysignificantfacts)和背景资料(backgroundfacts)。
7、确定争点(issues)
所谓争点就是法院判决所必须预先解决的关于事实和法律的争议。
应根据自己的目的来设定和陈述争议的焦点。
对争点的陈述一般应当具体清楚,避免太过含糊和笼统。
如:
DiddefendantCurtisfalselyimprisonplaintiffButterworthwhenhedrovearoundinthecarforsevenhourswithoutstoppingtoletherout?
(原告在被告驾驶的车中连续呆了7个小时不被允许下车,被告的这种行为是否构成对原告的非法拘禁?
)
8、法院裁决(holding)
简要总结出法院就争点所做的答复及主要原因。
如:
Yes;CurtisfalselyimprisonedButterworthbecauseheusedwordsoractsintendedtoconfineButterworth,heactuallyconfinedherinthecar,andButterworthwasawarethatshewasconfined.
9、法院推理过程(rationale/reasoning/analysis)(本部分结合上次5B中IRAC部分一起学习)
这是案例摘要中最重要的部分。
它应该包括相关法律原则(relevantrules),这些原则的运用(theapplicationofthoserules)和法院的判决结果(theconclusionthecourtreached)。
如果可能的话,你可以用三段论法(syllogism)来进行分析:
相关法律原则是大前提(majorpremise)——原则运用是小前提(minorpremise)——经过推理论证最后得出结论。
例如,首先你可以陈述在某一管辖法院内(inthejurisdiction)关于非法拘禁(falseimprisonment)的法则及其构成要件,然后你就要分析法院是如何对这一具体的案件适用该法则的。
如此一步一步的推理下去,那么你在分析过程中所遇到的疑难问题就会逐渐变得清晰起来。
最后再说明法院是如何做出判决的。
在法院推理的运用中,一般会牵涉到四种常用的分析方法,这是应该了解的,在此简述如下:
(1)归纳推理(inductivereasoning);
(2)演绎推理(deductivereasoning);(3)类比推理(analogicalreasoning);(4)规范推理(normativereasoning)。
Itisimportanttoappreciatetheseformsofreasoningarenotslavishlyfollowedinlegalanalysis;rather,theyprovidearoughmodelforunderstandingthestructureoflegalrhetoric.Inductivereasoningmaybedistinguishedinformfromdeductive,analogical,andnormativereasoning;thelatteraresimilarinstructureanditisconvenienttothinkofthemaslyingalongacontinuumofincreasingabstraction.Whileanalogicalreasoningisprobablythemostcommonstructureencountered,itisimportanttorecognizeandunderstandtheusesofeachofthesefourformsandtoappreciatethateachservesadifferentfunctioninlegalanalysis.
(1)InductiveReasoning
Inductivereasoning(sometimescalledreasoningbyexample),isprobablythemostbasicformofhumanlogic.Itinvolvesrepeatedobservationsfromwhichapatternisrecognizedandarulederived.Forexample:
Grandpadied.
(Observation1)
Fatherdied.
(Observation2)
Uncledied.
(Observation3)
Nomanhaslivedforever.
(Observation4)
Therefore,allmenaremortal.
(Conclusion;derivedrule)
Inthecontextoflegalanalysis,inductivereasoningpermitsthederivationofalegalrulefromstatutesandtheholdingsofappellateopinionswhichinterpretthem.(Theholdingofanopinionistheansweroftheappellatecourttotheparticularquestionbeforeit,asopposedtothereasoningoftheopinion,whichisthecourt’sexplanationastohowandwhytheholdingwasreached.)Statutesandtheholdingsofcasesinterpretingthestatutesareliketheobservationsintheexampleabove.Forexample,CaliforniaPenalCode§459providesthat“everypersonwhoentersany…vehicleasdefinedbytheVehicleCode,whenthedoorsarelocked”isguiltyofburglary.ButinPeoplev.Woods(1980)112Cal.App.3d226,230,theCourtofAppealdecidedthateventhoughthedoorsofacarwerelockedwhenthedefendantenteredit,burglarydidnotoccurbecauseawindowofthecarhadbeendeliberatelyleftopen.Conversely,inPeoplev.Toomes(1957)148Cal.App.2d465,theCourtofAppealdecidedthateventhoughthedoorsofacarhadnotbeenlocked,burglaryhadenteredthelockedtrunkofthecar.Inductivereasoningpermitsthefollowinganalysis.
Ifthedoorsarelocked,entryisburglary.
(observation1:
PC§459)
Ifthedoorsarelockedbutawindowisdeliberatelyleftopen,entryisnotburglary.
(observation2:
Woods)
Ifthedoorsarenotlockedbutthetrunkislocked,entryofthetrunkisburglary.
(observation3:
Toomes)
Therefore,wheretheinvadedareaissecuredagainstentry,entryisburglary.
(Conclusion:
derivedrule)
Thelegalrulederivedfromastatuteandaseriesofcasesinterpretingthestatutesuchasintheexampleabovetypicallymustbecreatedbyyou.Oneofthemostcommonmisconceptionsofbeginninglawstudentsisthebeliefthatsomewhereinthatvastcollectionofvolumesinthelawlibrarymustbeanalysesformost,ifnotevery,legalquestion.Actually,theconverseistrue.Whileitistruethatmanyimportantlegalquestionsareanalyzedintreatises,encyclopedias,andlawjournals,thealmostinfinitevariabilityofhumanactivitymakeseachlegalquestionunique.Thus,whiletheanalysesofsimilarquestionsmaybeveryhelpful,ultimatelytheuniquenessofyourfactsalmostalwaysleadstotheselectionofauniqueseriesofcasesandcompelsyoutoderivearulecustomizedtoyourfacts.Aderivedrulewhichsynthesizestheauthoritywellandiscompellingisagoodpredictorofhowajudgeislikelytounderstandthelaw.Theskillofderivingacompellingrulefromastatuteandaseriesofcasescanonlybedevelopedthroughpractice.
(2)Deductivereasoning
Deductivereasoningmaybethoughtofasthereverseofinductivereasoning.Ratherthandrivingageneralrulefromspecificfacts,itderivesaconclusionfromtheapplicationofspecificfactstoageneralrule.Forexample:
IsSocratesmortal?
(Issue)
Allmenaremortal.
(Rule,majorpremise)
Socratesisaman.
(Facts,minorpremise)
Therefore,Socratesismortal.
(Conclusion)
Logicianscallthisasyllogism(thegeneralruleiscalledthemajorpremiseandtheparticularfacttobeconsiderediscalledtheminorpremise).Inlegalanalysis,thedeductivereasoningsyllogismalwaysbeginswithaspecificquestion,whichiscalledan“issue.”Intheexample,theissuemightbestated:
“IsSocratesmortal?
”Deductivereasoningthenappliesthefactthat“Socratesisaman”totherulethat“Allmenaremortal”toproducetheconclusionthat“Socratesismortal.”Thus,therearefourtermstothedeductivereasoningsyllogism:
theissue,therule,thefacts,andtheconclusion.Deductivereasoningalwayspresentsthesetermsinthatsequence:
issue,rule,facts,andconclusion.
Inalegalcontext,deductivereasoningleadsfromalegalruletoadecisioninaparticularcase.Forexample,ProbateCodesection6110providesthattobevalid,a“willshallbesignedby…thetestator.”Ifyourcaseinvolvesawillwhichwasnotsignedbythetestator,thenaconclusionmaybederivedthatthewillisnotvalid.
Isthisunsignedwillvalid?
(Issue)
Tobevalid,awillmustbesigned.
(Rule:
ProbateCode§6110)
Thiswillisnotsigned.
(Facts)
Therefore,thiswillisnotvalid.
(Conclusion)
Limitationsofthelegalsyllogism
Deductivereasoningprovidesatleastaroughorganizationalframeworkformostlegalanalysesinofficememoranda,answerstoessayexaminations,andbriefs.Theusefulnessofthesyllogisminlegalreasoning,however,islimitedbytheflexibilityanduncertaintyinlegalanalysis.Forexample,toestablishthemajorpremiseofyourargument,youmaystateyourinterpretationoftheholdingofapreviousdecisionoryoursynthesisoftheholdingsofaseriesofdecisions.Untilajudgeexpresseshisopiniononthematter,however,youcannotbecertainwhetherhewillagreewithyourinterpretationofpreviousdecisionsandthuswithyourstatementofthemajorpremise.
Indeed,thedominantdescriptionoflegalmethodsincethe20thcentury,knownas“legalrealism”,rejectsthenotionthatthelawisexternaltothejudgesandotherofficialswhoapplyandenforceit.Instead,thelawissimplyapredictionaboutwhatsuchofficialswilldointhefaceofadispute.Moreover,theirdecisionswilltakeintoaccountthesocialconsequencesoftheiractionsandwillbebaseduponacomplexsetofmotivations,includingpersonalvaluesandprejudicesnotexplicitlyaccountedforintheformalabstractruleoflaw.Thus,judgesorjuriescantakeadvantageofuncertaintyinlaworfactsbymanipulatingthemtojustifyresultsthattheyreachonotherthanpurelylogicgrounds.
Inshort,legaldisputescannotbeanalyzedwithmathematicalcertainty:
Thelifeofthelawhasnotbeenlogic:
ithasbeenexperience.Thefeltnecessitiesofthetime,theprevalentmoralandpoliticaltheories,intuitionsofpublicpolicy,avowedorunconscious,eventheprejudiceswhic