从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用.docx

从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用.docx

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从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用

从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用

　　[Abstract]Theword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreek,eu--means“good”,and–pheme-,“speech”or“saying”,andtogetheritmeansliterally“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”.Euphemism,asaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept,hasattractedpeople’sattentionforalongtime.Ithaslongbeenatopicofmuchinterest.Generallyspeaking,peoplewouldusemoreeuphemismsincommunicatingwiththeoppositesex;womenwouldusemorethanmenwould;olderpeoplewouldusemorethanyoungergenerations.Peoplewouldmoreuseeuphemismsin"power"relationsthanincloserelations.Peoplewithhighereducationwouldusemoreeuphemisms.Theabovefactors:

age,sex,socialstatus,education,etc.donotworkseparately.Incommunicating,theyareinterlacedwitheachotherandguideourchoiceofeuphemisms.Whethertouseeuphemismsortaboowordsalsodepends,toalargeextent,ontheattitudesofparticipants（particularlyspeakers）andthepurposeofconversations.Thearticleconsistsofsixparts.Partoneexplainswhatthemeaningofeuphemismis.ParttwoissayingtheCooperativePrincipleinbriefly.CooperativePrinciple,thecornerstonetheoryofpragmatics,isoneofthemainprinciplesthatguidepeople’scommunication.TheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximscanexplainwhattheliteralmeaningisanditsrealintentionincommunicationandensurethatinanexchangeofconversation.Partthreepresents,theformationeuphemism,namely,formalinnovation,semanticinnovation,rhetoricaldevices,andgrammaticalways.Partfourdiscussesthecommunicativefunctionofeuphemismissubstitution,politeness,disguise,defense,etc.Partfiveservesasthemainbodyofthisarticle.Generallyspeaking,euphemismsviolatetheQuality,QuantityandMannerMaximoftheCPduetodifferentreasonslikesubstitution,disguiseetc.AndbasicallyeuphemismsobservetheRelationMaxim.Fromtheanalysis,itcanbealsofoundthatsometimesaneuphemismcanberegardedasviolationoftwomaximsoftheCPatthesametime.Partsixconcludesthewholearticle.

[KeyWords]CooperativePrinciple;Euphemism;Communicativefunction

【摘要】委婉语（euphemism）一词起源于希腊语。

Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“话语”，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。

委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。

总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。

人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。

受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。

上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。

是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。

文章由六个部分组成。

第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。

第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。

它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。

它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。

第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：

形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。

第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。

第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。

第六部分总结全文。

【关键字】合作原则;委婉语;交际功能

1.Introduction

IntheOxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish–ChineseDictionarytheexplanationofEuphemismis"（exampleofthe）useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones"[1].AndintheLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishtheexplanationofEuphemismis"（anexampleof）theuseofapleasanter,lessdirectnameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant".Forexample,themanwhowantstoustocallhima“sanitationengineer”insteadofa“garbageman”ishopingwewilltreathimwithmorerespectthanwepresentlydo.

"Theword‘euphemism‘comesfromtheGreekeumeaning‘good‘andphememeaning‘speech‘or‘saying‘,andthusmeansliterally‘tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner‘".Euphemismshavevariousreasonsforexistence.Theyconcealthethingspeoplefearthemost—death,thedead,thesupernatural.Theycoverupthefactsoflife—ofsexandreproductionandexcretion—whichinevitablyremindeventhemostrefinedpeoplethattheyaremadeofclay,orworse.Theyarebelovedbyindividualsandinstitutions（governments,especially）thatareanxioustopresentonlythehandsomestpossibleimagesofthemselvestotheworld.Andtheyareimbeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewhopridethemselvesonbeingplainspoken,evergetthroughadaywithoutusingthem.ButsomepeoplestillmistaketheeuphemismsintheconversationbytheCooperativeprinciple.ViolatingtheCP,peoplealsocancontinuetheconversationwitheuphemisms,whichmaketheauthorinterestinattitudesofparticipantsandthepurposeofconversation.Thatisourbodytoday.

ofeuphemisms

Formalinnovation

Toavoidtheemergenceofcertainletterorsoundmayachievetheeffectofeuphemizing.Theformalinnovationcanhideaudio-visuallythosewordswedon’twanttosayorweshouldn’tsaysoastoachievebetteroutcomeincommunication.

AbbreviationistheshorteningofawordandmaybeseenintheuseoftheBritishexpressionLADIESforladies’room.TherealsoisGENTSforgentlemen’sroom.

Apocopation

Apocopationisanotherformofabbreviationapparentintheuseofvampforvampireheremeaningaseductivewoman.Andlavisforlavatory;homoisforhomosexual;cocaisforcocaine;braisforbrassiere.

Initialing

Initialingistheuseofacronymsinsteadoftheircomponentpartsasin"JCfor“JesusChrist”,BMforbowelmovement","forwatercloset,　forbodyodor,　forvenerealdisease,AIDSforacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome,SARSforsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome".

Backforming

Backformingisthesubstitutionforonepartofspeech（usedinshortenedform）foranother,asin"burgle（rob）whichisderivedfrom‘burglar‘".

Reduplication

Reduplicationistherepetitionofasyllableorletterofaword.Particularlycommoninchildren’sbathroomvocabulary,itsubstitutes"pee-peefor‘piss‘,poo-poofor‘bowelmovement‘".

Blendword

Ablendwordisaformofphoneticdistortioninwhichtwoormorewordsaresqueezedtogetherbothorthographicallyandphonetically.Anexampleofthisis"gezundaforachamberpot,atermderivedfromthefactthatthisobject‘goesunderthebed‘".

Diminutive

Adiminutiveistheformationofanewtermbynickingorshorteninganameandaddingasuffixindicatingaffectionorsmallness."Heinie,forexample,isthediminutiveof‘hindend‘andreferstothebuttocks".

Semanticinnovation

Borrowing

Mostobviously,euphemismsmaybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages—termsthatarelessfreightedwithnegativeassociations.Thus,weuseGreekandLatinexpressionsformanybodilypartsandfunctions.Wehavecoinedhalitosis（badbreath）fromtheLatin（halitus）for“breath”andwehavesubstitutedmicturitionforthemorevulgarIndo-European“Piss”.Inaddition,Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientificoracademicterms,whicharebelievedtobemoreeuphemisticandobjectivethantheusualterms,suchasmagneticfor“sexy”andperspirefor“sweat”andsoon.

Widening

Euphemismsmaybemadebyasemanticprocesscalledwidening.Whenaspecifictermbecomestoopainfulorvivid,wemoveupintheladderofabstraction.Inthisway,cancerbecomesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundation.Sometimes,inadditiontowideningwedividethenegativeconnotationsofasingledirecttermbetweentwoormorewords.Insteadofsaying“syphilis”openly,wespeakofasocialdisease.

Semanticshift

Alliedtothephenomenonofwideningisthatofsemanticshift.Thisisthesubstitutionofthewhole,orasimilargenerality,forthespecificpartwedonotchoosetodiscuss.Wemaycreatesuchmetonymies（substitutionsofthewholeforthepart）asrearendfor“buttocks”.Sometimes,asintheexpressions"tosleepwith/gotobedwithsomeone"[10],weusewordsnamingthelargereventinplaceofmoreprecisereferencestothesexualrelationsthatarepartoftheprocess.

Rhetoricaldevices

Metaphor

Euphemismsmaybemadebyaprocesscalledmetaphoricaltransfer,thecomparisonofthingsofonekindtothingsofanother.Theeuphemismschosenareoftenromanticizing,poeticizingandsofteningoftheoriginalwordslike"gotosleep;gotohislonghome;behomeandfree;restinpeace;beatrest;gotoHeaven/Paradise;joinone‘sancestors;begatheredtoone‘sfathers;jointheimmoralsfordie"[11],shockforrandombombing,constructivedestructionforseveredamage,havearoadtotravelforhavealongtimetoreachanagreementandetc..

Aposiopesis

InEnglish,thereisakindofrhetoriccalledaposiopesisthatcanalsoactasthewayofeuphemizing.Whenwethinkweshouldnotsaysomethingundercertainconditions,wesuddenlystopaswhenwesaysomeoneisout（ofwork）;sheisexpecting（ababy）;"totakeprecautions（againstpregnancy）;todepart（fromthisworld）"[12]

Analogycanoftenbeseeninthevocabulariesofwork.Atendencytoelevatemenialorunskilledjobs—sometimessubstitutingagrandtitleforalargesalary—canmakeoffalsmelllikearosebypromotinggarbagementosanitationengineersoreventowaste--reductionmanagers.Byimplication,theybecomehighlytrainedtechniciansandexecutives.Health-clubstaffsbecomefitnesscoordinators,andsenatorsnowhavetheirshoesshinedbythefootwearmaintenanceengineer,formerlytheSenatebootblack.Evenifyouarenotagovernmentofficial,yourjanitorisnowyourbuidingmaintenanceengineer.

Understatement

Understatementdisplayspeople’sdesiretomaketheirlanguagelesspainfulanddirect.Sothereisneveranuglywomaninthisworld,sheisatleastplain.Teachersonlytellparentsthattheirchildisabitslowforhisage,notretarded.Andcallseniorcitizenforoldperson."Takeother‘sthingswithoutpermission"canbeinsteadof"steal".

Periphrasis

Periphrasisisjustbeatingaroundthebush.Peopleoftensayeuphemismsareweaselwords,becausepeoplenevercallaspadeaspadewhenusingeuphemisms