语言学.docx

语言学.docx

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语言学

第一章  绪论

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是语言学？

Linguistics isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalled generallinguistics.（普通语言学）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalled phonetics.（语音学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalled phonology.（音系学）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalled morphology.（形态学）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalled syntax.（句法学）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalled semantics.（语义学）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalled pragmatics.（语用学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalled socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownas appliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）

Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学） neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）and computationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive描写与规定

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe descriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobe prescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.现代语言学与传统语法

Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.

Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisa synchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa diachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口头语与书面语

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication. 

Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform. 

Reasons:

1.Speechprecedeswriting;

2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;

3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole[pə'rəul]语言和言语

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20th century.

Langue referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,and parole referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.

Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.

Hedefines competence astheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and performance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules. 

4/Whatislanguage?

语言的定义

Language isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Sapir,Edwarduses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.

Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.

Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent;itfocusesonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.

5/Designfeatures语言的甄别性特征

Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.

AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures.

1）Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）

 Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweentheworddogandtheanimalitrefersto.Thefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguagesandthatthesamesoundmaybeusedtorefertodifferentobjectsisanothergoodexample.

2）Productivity能产性

Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosethattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore. 

3）Duality结构二重性

Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge. 

4）Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）

Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutwhathappenedinthepast,whatishappeningnow,orwhatwillhappeninthefuture.Languagecanalsobeusedtotalkaboutourrealwordexperiencesortheexperiencesinourimaginaryworld.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker. 

5）Culturaltransmission文化传播性

Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew. 

Chapter2Phonology 音系学

1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介

Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.

Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.

Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的声音媒介）.

Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.

2．Whatisphonetics?

什么是语音学？

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Threebranchesofphonetics

Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.

3.  Organsofspeech发音器官

Thepharyngealcavity咽腔 thethroat

Theoralcavity口腔       themouth

Thenasalcavity鼻腔      thenose

4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标

IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标

Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols（字母符号）only,calledbroadtranscription（宽式音标）.Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（变音符号）,callednarrowtranscription（窄式音标）.

p音的比较

对pit/spit中p音的比较：

pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：

[phit]

spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[spit]

l音的比较

对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[li:

f]

Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]

Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]

5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类

Consonants

Vowels

a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按发音方式分

Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

Fricative擦音：

[f][v][s][z][W][T][s][V][h]

Affricate塞擦音：

[tF][dV]

Liquid流音：

[l][r]

Nasal鼻音：

[m][n][N]

Glide滑音：

[w][j]

a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音：

[p][b][m][w]

Labiodental唇齿音：

[f][v]

Dental齿音：

[W][T]

Alveolar齿龈音：

[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]

Palatal硬腭音：

[V][tF][dV][i]

Velar软腭音：

[k][g][N]

Glottal声门音：

[h]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels按舌头在口中的位置分：

Frontvowel前元音：

[i:

][i][e][A][a]

Centralvowel中元音：

[[:

][[][Q]

Backvowel后元音：

[u:

][u][R:

][R][a:

]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels按口形的大小分：

Closevowel闭元音：

[i:

][i][u:

][u]

Semi-closevowel半闭元音：

[e][[:

]

Openvowel开元音：

[A][a]

Semi-openvowel半开元音：

[[][R:

][Q][R][a:

]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels按唇形是否为圆分

Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：

[i:

][i][e][A][a][[:

][[][Q][a:

]

roundedvowel圆唇元音：

[u:

][u][R:

][R]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels按语音的长短分

Longvowel长元音[i:

][[:

][a:

][u:

][R:

]

Shortvowel短元音[i][e][A][a][[][Q][u][R]

6.Phonology 音系学

Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学

Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.

Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;

Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.

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