女性主义的英文材料.docx

女性主义的英文材料.docx

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女性主义的英文材料

Feminism

Feminismisacollectionofmovementsaimedatdefining,establishing,anddefendingequalpolitical,economic,andsocialrightsforwomen.[1][2]Inaddition,feminismseekstoestablishequalopportunitiesforwomenineducationandemployment.Afeministisa"personwhosebeliefsandbehaviorarebasedonfeminism."[3]

Feministtheory,whichemergedfromthesefeministmovements,aimstounderstandthenatureofgenderinequalitybyexaminingwomen'ssocialrolesandlivedexperience;ithasdevelopedtheoriesinavarietyofdisciplinesinordertorespondtoissuessuchasthesocialconstructionofsexandgender.[4][5]Someoftheearlierformsoffeminismhavebeencriticizedfortakingintoaccountonlywhite,middle-class,educatedperspectives.Thisledtothecreationofethnically-specificormulticulturalistformsoffeminism.[6]

Feministactivistscampaignforwomen'srights–suchasincontractlaw,property,andvoting–whilealsopromotingbodilyintegrity,autonomyandreproductiverightsforwomen.Feministcampaignshavechangedsocieties,particularlyintheWest,byachievingwomen'ssuffrage,genderneutralityinEnglish,equalpayforwomen,reproductiverightsforwomen（includingaccesstocontraceptivesandabortion）,andtherighttoenterintocontractsandownproperty.[7][8]Feministshaveworkedtoprotectwomenandgirlsfromdomesticviolence,sexualharassment,andsexualassault.[9][10][11]Theyhavealsoadvocatedforworkplacerights,includingmaternityleave,andagainstformsofdiscriminationagainstwomen.[7][8][12]Feminismismainlyfocusedonwomen'sissues,butbecausefeminismseeksgenderequality,somefeministsarguethatmen'sliberationisanecessarypartoffeminism,andthatmenarealsoharmedbysexismandgenderroles.

Contents

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∙1History

o1.1Nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies

o1.2Mid-twentiethcentury

o1.3Latetwentiethandearlytwenty-firstcenturies

∙2Theory

∙3Movementsandideologies

o3.1Politicalmovements

o3.2Materialistideologies

o3.3Blackandpostcolonialideologies

o3.4Socialconstructionistideologies

o3.5Culturalmovements

∙4Societalimpact

o4.1Civilrights

o4.2Language

o4.3Theology

o4.4Patriarchy

o4.5Menandmasculinity

∙5Culture

o5.1Architecture

o5.2Literature

o5.3Music

o5.4Visualarts

∙6Sexuality

o6.1Sexindustry

▪6.1.1Pornography

▪6.1.2Prostitutionandtrafficking

∙7Relationshiptopoliticalmovements

o7.1Socialism

o7.2Fascism

o7.3Civilrightsmovementandanti-racism

∙8Science

o8.1Biologyandgender

∙9Reactions

o9.1Pro-feminism

o9.2Anti-feminism

∙10Seealso

∙11References

∙12Furtherreading

∙13Externallinks

o13.1Multimediaanddocuments

o13.2Articles

o13.3Listings

o13.4Tools

History

FeministSuffrageParadeinNewYorkCity,May6,1912.

Mainarticle:

Historyoffeminism

Seealso:

Protofeminist

Dependingonhistoricalmoment,cultureandcountry,feministsaroundtheworldhavehaddifferentcausesandgoals.Mostwesternfeministhistoriansassertthatallmovementsthatworktoobtainwomen'srightsshouldbeconsideredfeministmovements,evenwhentheydidnot（ordonot）applythetermtothemselves.[13][14][15][16][17][18]Otherhistoriansassertthatthetermshouldbelimitedtothemodernfeministmovementanditsdescendants.Thosehistoriansusethelabel"protofeminist"todescribeearliermovements.[19]

Thehistoryofthemodernwesternfeministmovementsisdividedintothree"waves".[20][21]Eachwavedealtwithdifferentaspectsofthesamefeministissues.Thefirstwavecomprisedwomen'ssuffragemovementsofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,promotingwomen'srighttovote.Thesecondwavewasassociatedwiththeideasandactionsofthewomen'sliberationmovementbeginninginthe1960s.Thesecondwavecampaignedforlegalandsocialequalityforwomen.Thethirdwaveisacontinuationof,andareactionto,theperceivedfailuresofsecond-wavefeminism,beginninginthe1990s.[22]

Nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies

First-wavefeminismwasaperiodofactivityduringthenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcentury.IntheU.K.andUS,itfocusedonthepromotionofequalcontract,marriage,parenting,andpropertyrightsforwomen.Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,activismfocusedprimarilyongainingpoliticalpower,particularlytherightofwomen'ssuffrage,thoughsomefeministswereactiveincampaigningforwomen'ssexual,reproductive,andeconomicrightsaswell.[23]

LouiseWeissalongwithotherParisiansuffragettesin1935.Thenewspaperheadlinereads"TheFrenchwomanMustVote."

Women'ssuffragewasachievedinBritain'sAustralasiancoloniesatthecloseofthe19thcentury,withtheself-governingcoloniesofNewZealandandSouthAustraliagrantingwomentherighttovotein1893and1895respectively.ItwasfollowedbyAustraliapermittingwomentostandforparliamentaryofficeandgrantingwomentherighttovote.[24][25]

InBritaintheSuffragettesandtheSuffragistscampaignedforthewomen'svote,andin1918theRepresentationofthePeopleActwaspassedgrantingthevotetowomenovertheageof30whoownedhouses.In1928thiswasextendedtoallwomenovertwenty-one.[26]IntheU.S.,notableleadersofthismovementincludedLucretiaMott,ElizabethCadyStanton,andSusanB.Anthony,whoeachcampaignedfortheabolitionofslaverypriortochampioningwomen'srighttovote.ThesewomenwereinfluencedbytheQuakertheologyofspiritualequality,whichassertsthatmenandwomenareequalunderGod.[27]IntheUnitedStates,first-wavefeminismisconsideredtohaveendedwiththepassageoftheNineteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution（1919）,grantingwomentherighttovoteinallstates.Thetermfirstwavewascoinedretroactivelytocategorizethesewesternmovementsafterthetermsecond-wavefeminismbegantobeusedtodescribeanewerfeministmovementthatfocusedasmuchonfightingsocialandculturalinequalitiesaspoliticalinequalities.[23][28][29][30][31]

DuringthelateQingperiodandreformmovementssuchastheHundredDays'Reform,Chinesefeministscalledforwomen'sliberationfromtraditionalrolesandNeo-Confuciangendersegregation.[32][33][34]Later,theChineseCommunistPartycreatedprojectsaimedatintegratingwomenintotheworkforce,andclaimedthattherevolutionhadsuccessfullyachievedwomen'sliberation.[35]

In1899,QasimAmin,consideredthe"father"ofArabfeminism,wroteTheLiberationofWomen,whicharguedforlegalandsocialreformsforwomen.[36]HodaShaarawifoundedtheEgyptianFeministUnionin1923,andbecameitspresidentandasymboloftheArabwomen'srightsmovement.ArabfeminismwascloselyconnectedwithArabnationalism.[37]

TheIranianConstitutionalRevolutionin1905triggeredtheIranianwomen'smovement,whichaimedtoachievewomen'sequalityineducation,marriage,careers,andlegalrights.[38]However,duringtheIranianrevolutionof1979,manyoftherightsthatwomenhadgainedfromthewomen'smovementweresystematicallyabolished,suchastheFamilyProtectionLaw.[39]

InFrance,womenobtainedtherighttovoteonlywiththeProvisionalGovernmentoftheFrenchRepublicof21April1944.[40]TheConsultativeAssemblyofAlgiersof1944proposedon24March1944togranteligibilitytowomenbutfollowinganamendmentbyFernandGrenier,theyweregivenfullcitizenship,includingtherighttovote.[40]Grenier'spropositionwasadopted51to16.[40]InMay1947,followingtheNovember1946elections,thesociologistRobertVerdierminimizedthe"gendergap,"statinginLePopulairethatwomenhadnotvotedinaconsistentway,dividingthemselves,asmen,accordingtosocialclasses.[40]Duringthebabyboomperiod,feminismwanedinimportance.[40]Wars（bothWorldWarIandWorldWarII）hadseentheprovisionalemancipationofsome,individual,women,butpost-warperiodssignaledthereturntoconservativeroles.[40]

Mid-twentiethcentury

FrenchphilosopherSimonedeBeauvoirprovidedaMarxistsolutionandanexistentialistviewonmanyofthequestionsoffeminismwiththepublicationofLeDeuxièmeSexe（TheSecondSex）in1949.[41]Thebookexpressedfeminists'senseofinjustice.Second-wavefeminismisafeministmovementbeginningintheearly1960s[42]andcontinuingtothepresent;assuch,itcoexistswiththird-wavefeminism.Secondwavefeminismislargelyconcernedwithissuesofequalityotherthansuffrage,suchasendingdiscrimination.[23]

Second-wavefeministsseewomen'sculturalandpoliticalinequalitiesasinextricablylinkedandencouragewomentounderstandaspectsoftheirpersonallivesasdeeplypoliticizedandasreflectingsexistpowerstructures.ThefeministactivistandauthorCarolHanischcoinedtheslogan"ThePersonalisPolitical",whichbecamesynonymouswiththesecondwave.[9][43]

Secondandthird-wavefeminisminChinahasbeencharacterizedbyare-examinationofwomen'srolesduringthecommunistrevolutionandotherreformmovements,andnewdiscussionsaboutwhetherwomen'sequalityhasactuallybeenfullyachieved.[35]

In1956,PresidentGamalAbdelNasserofEgyptinitiated"statefeminism",whichoutlaweddiscriminationbasedongenderandgrantedwomen'ssuffrage,butalsoblockedpoliticalactivismbyfeministleaders.[44]DuringSadat'spresidency,hiswife,JehanSadat,publiclyadvocatedforfurtherwomen'srights,thoughEgyptianpolicyandsocietybegantomoveawayfromwomen'sequalitywiththenewIslamistmovementandgrowingconservatism.[45]However,someactivistsproposedanewfeministmovement,Islamicfeminism,whicharguesforwomen'sequalitywithinanIslam