女性主义的英文材料.docx

1、女性主义的英文材料FeminismFeminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women.12 In addition, feminism seeks to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment. A feminist is a person whose beliefs and

2、 behavior are based on feminism.3Feminist theory, which emerged from these feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining womens social roles and lived experience; it has developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues such as the soc

3、ial construction of sex and gender.45 Some of the earlier forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle-class, educated perspectives. This led to the creation of ethnically-specific or multiculturalist forms of feminism.6Feminist activists campaign for womens righ

4、ts such as in contract law, property, and voting while also promoting bodily integrity, autonomy and reproductive rights for women. Feminist campaigns have changed societies, particularly in the West, by achieving womens suffrage, gender neutrality in English, equal pay for women, reproductive right

5、s for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property.78 Feminists have worked to protect women and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment, and sexual assault.91011 They have also advocated for workplace rights, including mater

6、nity leave, and against forms of discrimination against women.7812 Feminism is mainly focused on womens issues, but because feminism seeks gender equality, some feminists argue that mens liberation is a necessary part of feminism, and that men are also harmed by sexism and gender roles.Contentshide

7、1 History o 1.1 Nineteenth and early twentieth centuries o 1.2 Mid-twentieth century o 1.3 Late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries 2 Theory 3 Movements and ideologies o 3.1 Political movements o 3.2 Materialist ideologies o 3.3 Black and postcolonial ideologies o 3.4 Social constructionist i

8、deologies o 3.5 Cultural movements 4 Societal impact o 4.1 Civil rights o 4.2 Language o 4.3 Theology o 4.4 Patriarchy o 4.5 Men and masculinity 5 Culture o 5.1 Architecture o 5.2 Literature o 5.3 Music o 5.4 Visual arts 6 Sexuality o 6.1 Sex industry 6.1.1 Pornography 6.1.2 Prostitution and traffic

9、king 7 Relationship to political movements o 7.1 Socialism o 7.2 Fascism o 7.3 Civil rights movement and anti-racism 8 Science o 8.1 Biology and gender 9 Reactions o 9.1 Pro-feminism o 9.2 Anti-feminism 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links o 13.1 Multimedia and documents o

10、13.2 Articles o 13.3 Listings o 13.4 Tools HistoryFeminist Suffrage Parade in New York City, May 6, 1912.Main article: History of feminismSee also: ProtofeministDepending on historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist

11、historians assert that all movements that work to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not (or do not) apply the term to themselves.131415161718 Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants. Th

12、ose historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements.19The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves.2021 Each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth an

13、d early twentieth centuries, promoting womens right to vote. The second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women. The third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to,

14、 the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s.22Nineteenth and early twentieth centuriesFirst-wave feminism was a period of activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. In the U.K. and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, paren

15、ting, and property rights for women. By the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of womens suffrage, though some feminists were active in campaigning for womens sexual, reproductive, and economic rights as well.23Louise Weiss al

16、ong with other Parisian suffragettes in 1935. The newspaper headline reads The Frenchwoman Must Vote.Womens suffrage was achieved in Britains Australasian colonies at the close of the 19th century, with the self-governing colonies of New Zealand and South Australia granting women the right to vote i

17、n 1893 and 1895 respectively. It was followed by Australia permitting women to stand for parliamentary office and granting women the right to vote.2425In Britain the Suffragettes and the Suffragists campaigned for the womens vote, and in 1918 the Representation of the People Act was passed granting

18、the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. In 1928 this was extended to all women over twenty-one.26 In the U.S., notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing w

19、omens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God.27 In the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

20、(1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retroactively to categorize these western movements after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as p

21、olitical inequalities.2328293031During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles and Neo-Confucian gender segregation.323334 Later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating

22、 women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation.35In 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women.36 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Unio

23、n in 1923, and became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement. Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism.37The Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1905 triggered the Iranian womens movement, which aimed to achieve womens equality in education, marriage, careers

24、, and legal rights.38 However, during the Iranian revolution of 1979, many of the rights that women had gained from the womens movement were systematically abolished, such as the Family Protection Law.39In France, women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Re

25、public of 21 April 1944.40 The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernand Grenier, they were given full citizenship, including the right to vote.40 Greniers proposition was adopted 51 to 16.40 In May 1947, fo

26、llowing the November 1946 elections, the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the gender gap, stating in Le Populaire that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes.40 During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance.40 Wars (both Worl

27、d War I and World War II) had seen the provisional emancipation of some, individual, women, but post-war periods signaled the return to conservative roles.40Mid-twentieth centuryFrench philosopher Simone de Beauvoir provided a Marxist solution and an existentialist view on many of the questions of f

28、eminism with the publication of Le Deuxime Sexe (The Second Sex) in 1949.41 The book expressed feminists sense of injustice. Second-wave feminism is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s42 and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second wave feminism i

29、s largely concerned with issues of equality other than suffrage, such as ending discrimination.23Second-wave feminists see womens cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexis

30、t power structures. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined the slogan The Personal is Political, which became synonymous with the second wave.943Second and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a re-examination of womens roles during the communist revolution and other

31、 reform movements, and new discussions about whether womens equality has actually been fully achieved.35In 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt initiated state feminism, which outlawed discrimination based on gender and granted womens suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist

32、leaders.44 During Sadats presidency, his wife, Jehan Sadat, publicly advocated for further womens rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from womens equality with the new Islamist movement and growing conservatism.45 However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, Islamic feminism, which argues for womens equality within an Islam